A  New 

Dairy  Industry. 


Preparation  and  Sale  of  Artificial  Mothers' 
Milk;  Normal  Infants'  Milk. 


BY     JAIVIES     RRED.     SARG, 

LATE  OF   HESSENHOF,   LAKE  CONSTANCE,   GERMANY 


BLACK   FOREST  FARM, 

KEMPSViLLE,  VA. 

U.   S.   A. 


r 
A  NEW  DAIRY 

INDUSTRY 


Preparation  and  Sale  of  Artificial  Mothers'  Milk 
"NORMAL  INFANTS'  MILK" 


BY  JAMES  FRED.  SARG 

. 
Late  of  Hessenhof,  Lake  Constance,  (rennany 


BLACK  FOREST  FARM 

KEMPSVILLE,  VA. 

,U.  S.  A. 


Copyright,  i5&b'«,  .  by  jasyejs  Fvec1.  Sarg 


NORFOLK : 
W.  T.  BARRON  &  Co.,  PRINTERS 

189(5 


n 


"That  art  on  which  a  thousand  millions  of  men  are  depend- 
ent for  their  sustenance,  and  two  hundred  millions  of  men  ex- 
pend their  daily  toil,  must  be  the  most  important  of  all  ;  the 
parent  and  precursor  of  all  other  arts.  In  every  country,  then, 
and  at  every  period,  the  investigation  of  the  principles  on 
which  the  rational  practice  of  this  art  is  founded,  ought  to 
have  commanded  the  principal  attention  of  the  greatest  minds." 
—JAMES  F.  W.  JOHNSTON. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Introduction o 

CHAPTER  I. — Milk  and  Milking 7 

II.—  The  Origin  of  Bacteria  in  Milk  .  25 

III.— Decomposition  of  Milk 33 

IV.— Preserving  Milk  by  Chemicals.    .  37 

V. — Preservation  by  Cooling    ....  44 

VI. — Preservation  by  Heating  ....  48 

VII. — Pasteurization 52 

u     VIII.— Sterilizing 03 

IX.— The  Mortality  of  Infants  ....  78 

X.— Artificial  Mother's  Milk;  Normal 

Infants'  Milk 99 

XI.— The  Normal  Dairy 130 

"       XII.— Conclusion  .  154 


272136 


INDEX- 


PAGE 

33 
56 
117 

PACK 

14 

14 

Kefvr 

Lactodensi  meter  

8 
12 

Albuminoids  
Aiiisol  

.     9-11 
14 

Anorganic  matter  
Arachine  

14 
13 

16 

Automatic  sealing  
Artificial  mothers'  milk  

.72-125 
101 

103 

no 

Lactic  acid  

126 
114 

Manufacturing  process  
Maltose  

Bacteria  

25 
30 
26 
.       121 

Milk,  color  of  

7 

Bacteria,  number  of  

Milk,  bitter  
Milk,  frozen  

8 
44 

Bottling  

Milk,  salty  

8 
13  114 

Bedding  
Boiling  point  

28 
9 
39 
11 

.  ..    .         19 
'.'.'.".        17 
!)() 

Milk  solids  
Milking  

Normal  infants'  milk  

Butterf  at                     

13 

34 

50 
.       148 

10 
13 
13 
39 

Normal  dairy  

..    .           14 

Breeds  of  cattle       

Casein  

Olein  

13 

Orifice  of  teat  
Ozone  

Pasteur  

19 
42 

49 

Capri  1 

Capronine  

145 

9 

Pasteurizing  

52 

t.oaguiation  

lO"'' 

Period  of  lactation  

15 

Colostral  milk 

<) 

Palmitine  
Pollution  of  milk  
Phosphoric  acid  

13 
29 
14 

50 
12 
.       Ill 

Cream  separator  

Quevenne    

S 

.56-119 

Reaction  of  milk  
Reaction  of  alkaline  

S 

Cyiiiol  

14 

14 

128 

Retention  of  milk  

21 
40 

Salt  

Decomposition  of  milk  

33 
14 

87 

Salicylic  acid  
Sacharomyces  

.    ...        39 
14 
LJO 

Digestibility  of  casein  

Death  rate  of  infants  
FJscherich    Prof  

84 
90 

Souring  of  milk  

33 

14 

Feeding  

149 

Soda  

...    .        37 
42 

.       149 

118 

111 

Ferment  

g 

Filth  in  milk  

80 

Spores  

27 
11 

79 

20 

Globules  

13 
63  123 

13 

Sterilizing 

Glucose  

114 

Tvmol  

11 
74 

86 

Hvdrogen  peroxide  

42 

85 

Writer  bath    .  . 

C.7 

Household  >terilizer.  .  . 

INTRODUCTION. 


TT  has  always  been  the  investigations  of  science  that 
*  have  graded  the  path  on  which  practice  has  fol- 
lowed, but  too  often  sluggishly  after  a  longer  of 
shorter  time  ;  it  has  been  the  same  in  regard  to  the 
production  of  a  rational  nourishment  for  infants. 
Here  science  has  recorded  singular  successes  on  the 
different  fields  that  must  contribute  to  the  attainment 
of  a  desirable  product,  but  practical  execution  has 
been  slow  to  follow  the  lead. 

Statistics  have  forced  upon  us  the  conviction  that 
the  mortality  of  infants  artificially  nourished  is  so 
much  greater  than  that  of  those  nourished  in  the 
natural  way — on  the  breast,  and  that  whatever  dif- 
ference there  may  exist  in  the  causes  of  deterioration 
in  the  various  levels  of  human  society  \vomeii  live  in 
amongst  civilized  nations,  the  fact  is  uniformly  estab- 
lished that  the  development  of  the  milk  glands  in 
the  female  breast  is  steadily  decreasing/ 

Cow's  milk  will,  for  general  purposes,  ever  be  re- 
garded as  the  best  substitute  for  mother's  milk.  Natu- 
ral science  has  clone  much  to  impart  the  knowledge 
of  the  influence  of  feed  on  the  production  of  milk, 
and  engineering  has,  by  the  invention  of  improved 
machinery,  perfectly  revolutionized  dairy  technics, 
while  the  production  of  a  healthy  infants'  milk  has 


f>  Introduction. 

encountered  its  greatest  difficulty  in  the  conservatism 
of  the  fanner,  who  is  slow  to  adopt  advice  or  change 
his  methods. 

The  production  of  normal  infants'  milk  is  a  field 
of  work  that  stretches  over  so  many  industries  and 
sciences  that  a  thorough  mastering  of  them  can  im- 
possibly be  expected  of  the  dairyman  who  would 
undertake  the  manufacture  of  u  normal  infants'  food," 
but  a  familiarity  with  the  scientific  principles  of  all 
and  every  operation  comprised  in  the  manufacture 
should  most  decidedly  form  a  fundamental  part  of  his 
stock  in  trade.  Referring  to  this  sentiment,  I  will 
beg  my  readers  kindly  to  bear  in  mind  that  I  am  a 
farmer  writing  for  farmers. 

I  have  to  thank  Dr.  H.  Weigmann,  of  Kiel,  for  the 
permission  kindly  granted  to  translate  from  his  excel- 
lent work  the  bacteriological  part  of  this  treatise, 
which  I  herewith  recommend  to  the  indulgence  of  all 
those  who  are,  and  also  of  those  who  should  be,  in- 
terested in  the  amelioration  of  the  conditions  for  pro- 
ducing a  healthy  food  for  infants. 

JAMES  FRKD.  SARG. 
Black  Forest  Farm,  Va., 
October  of  1896. 


CHAPTER    I. 
anfc 


Those  organs  whose  secretions  we  give  the  name  of 
milk  are  called  milk  glands  and  their  aggregate  form 
in  the  cow,  including  the  skin  that  covers  them,  the 
udder. 

These  glands  do  not,  by  nature,  come  into  activity 
until  a  short  time  before  parturition  and  during  a 
variously  protracted  period  after  this  act.  The  first 
secretion  in  the  udder  caused  by  a  heightened  afflu- 
ence of  blood  to  all  generative  organs  after  conception, 
is  noticeable  about  the  middle  of  the  period  of  gesta- 
tion ;  the  teats  of  the  heifer  will  at  this  time,  when 
stripped,  render  a  small  drop  of  viscuous  transparent 
gum,  which  when  ocurring  may  be  accepted  as  the 
first  visible  sign  of  pregnancy.  This  sign  does,  how- 
ever, not  repeat  in  the  cow.  Differing  from  other 
animal  secretions  milk  is  opaque  and,  when  healthy, 
of  a  white  color.  Other  hues  of  color  with  exception 
of  the  first  or  colostral  milk,  which  is  of  a  yellowish 
tint,  indicate  rapidly  decomposing  milk  or  the  pres- 
ence of  bacteria  ;  some  few  intensely  colored  vegetable 
foods  are  also  able  to  give  a  coloring  to  the  milk. 
The  agreeable  sweetish  taste  of  normal  milk  may  be 
changed  by  the  influence  of  food  or  by  diseases  of  the 
udder.  An  inflammation  ascribed  to  the  action  of  a 


A  New  Dairy  Industry. 

bacterium  of  the  streptococcus  species  produces  a  salty 
taste  in  the  milk  which  at  such  time  is  also  slimy. 

Bitter  milk  is  not  infrequently  noticed  in  cows  with 
a  protracted  lactation — but  may  be  an  effect  of  food 
given  ;  it  has  been  noticed,  for  instance,  after  feeding 
large  quantities  of  young  clover  and  always  indicates 
the  presence  of  micro-organisms. 

The  smell  of  freshly  drawn  milk  is  faintly  like  that 
of  the  skin  of  the  animal  and  is  probablv  pro- 
duced by  the  presence  of  etheric  acids  of  fat. 

The  reaction  of  milk  is  generally  "  ainpho- 
tere,"  which'  means  to  say  that  it  will  turn 
blue  litmus  paper  red  and  also  turn  red  litmus 
paper  blue,  a  condition  based  on  the  simul- 
taneous presence  of  neutral  and  also  of  acid 
alkaline  phosphates  and  calcium  casemates  ; 
one  of  these  predominating  turns  the  re- 
action to  that  side.  Boiled  milk  acquires  an 
intensified  alkaline  reaction.  The  boiling- 
point  of  milk  is  about  1°  F.  higher  than  that 
of  water,  and  its  freezing  point  is  1  °  below 
that  of  water. 

The  specific  gravity  of  milk,  dependant  on 
its  temperature,  varies  with  the  relative  quan- 
tities of  its  composing  elements  :  \vater,  butter- 
fat  and  solids.  Instruments  have  been  in- 

Plam  Lacto- 

densimeter- vented  to  ascertain  the  specific  gravity,  for 
instance,  the  lactodensimeter  of  Guevenne  and  Soxh- 
let.  By  the  aid  of  the  specific  gravity,  with  a  known 
amount  of  fat,  the  solids  may  be  calculated.  These 


Milk  and  Mil  kino.  9 

instruments  are  valuable  as  a  means  to  detect  watered 
or  skimmed  milk.  The  specific  weight  of  milk 
ranges  from  1.027  to  1.0:55.  Colostral  milk  at  <>0° 
F.  1.050;  skim  milk,  1.0:V2  to  1.087;  cream, 
on  an  average,  1.0  10. 

Amongst  the  chemical  ingredients  of  milk 
we  find  all  the  principles  of  nourishment  : 
•proteids,  fats,  carbohydrates,  salts  and  water. 
Amongst  the  albuminoids  in  the  milk-  casein 
predominates.  It  is  accepted  as  probable  by 
some  that  the  casein  in  cow's  milk  is 
identical  with  that  in  human  milk,  although 
we  note  that  the  casein  in  woman's  milk, 
when  coagulated  by  the  action  of  rennet, 
is  by  far  more  fine-flaked  and  jellyfied  than 
that  from  cow's  milk,  which  latter  forms 
into  compact  solid  flakes.  The  difference  of 
coagulating  is  probably  due  to  the  different 
quantity  in  which  salts  are  present  in  the  two 
milks  ;  but  this  distinctive  difference  in  coag- 
ulating, we  must  bear  in  mind,  constitutes  one 
•of  the  principal  deficiencies  when  we  come  to 
look  at  cow's  milk  as  a  substitute  for  mother's 
milk.  This  is  of  such  salient  importance  in 
the  transformation  of  cow's  milk  into  artificial  Lactodens- 
mother's  milk,  that  the  closest  study  of  the 


various  investigations  carried  on  at  the  present 
time  on  this   line  must   be  recommended  to  all  that 
would  undertake  the  manufacture  of  normal  infants' 
:milk.     Cow's  milk  and  human  milk  differ  with  re- 


10  A  Neiv  Dairy  Industry. 

spect  to  the  curdling  of  the  casein,  the  content  of 
salts,  the  absolute  content  of  nutrients  and  the  rela- 
tion of  the  various  constituents.  The  nature  of  the 
coagulated  casein  in  the  stomach  depends  upon  the 
casein  solution,  the  content  of  soluble  calcium  salts 
and  the  acidity  of  the  solution.  Cow's  milk  is  in 
these  three  respects  unfavorable  to  the  best  coagula- 
tion, for  it  contains  twice  as  much  casein,  six  times  as^ 
much  lime  and  is  three  times  as  acid  as  human  milk,, 
while  this  latter  contains  but  one-third  as  much  of" 
acid  phosphates  as  cow's  milk. 

Casein  forms  three  chemical  compounds  with  cal- 
cium or  sodium — dependent  on  the  predominant  re- 
action— the  mono,  di  and  tri-calcic  (or  sodic)  casein. 
Only  the  dicalcic  or  disodic  casein  compounds  are 
curdled  by  rennet  in  the  presence  of  water  soluble 
lime  salts,  and  the  completeness  of  the  curdling  de- 
pends on  the  amount  of  lime  salts  ;  we  may,  there- 
fore, attribute  the  compactness  of  the  casein  curdling- 
in  cow's  milk  to  an  increased  alkalinity.  The  studies 
of  Bechamp  show  that  casein  is  not  a  soluble  sub- 
stance which  may  be  coagulated  by  acids,  but  that  it 
is  an  insoluble  substance  forming  soluble  compounds, 
caseinates,  with  alkalies  and  lime,  and  that  the  in- 
soluble casein  may  be  precipitated  from  these  com- 
pounds by  acids  which  combine  with  the  bases  of 
caseinates.  The  change  in  the  casein  by  the  action 
of  rennet  has  no  connection  with  the  reaction.  We 
shall  see  later  what  effect  heating  produces  on  the  di- 
gestability  of  casein  and  on  the  milk  proteids  in  general.. 


Milk  and  Milking.  11 

Further  albuminoids  of  milk,  but  of  secondary  im- 
portance, are  lactoglobulin,  lactalbumen  and  peptone, 
the  nutritive  value  of  which  is,  however,  considerably 
impaired  by  boiling  the  milk,  by  which  a  greater  part 
is  changed  to  hemialbuminose. 

Following  the  albuminoids,  the  different  fats  in 
milk  merit  our  attention  ;  we  designate  them  collec- 
tively as  butter-fats,  and  find  them  suspended  in  the 
milk  in  emulsive  condition,  that  is,  globules  of  the 
minutest  size  ;  these  globules,  coated  with  casein,  give 
the  white  color  to  milk.  The  size  and  number  of 
globules  is  variable  in  one  and  the  same  animal,  being 
affected  by  the  advance  of  lactation,  change  of  feed 
and  by  sickness.  With  the  advance  of  lactation,  the 
number  of  large  globules  diminishes  and  that  of  the 
small  globules  increases  ;  with  the  change  from  dry 
feed  to  green  feed  in  the  spring,  there  is  an  increase 
in  the  proportion  and  the  number  of  the  large  globules. 
Disease  or  sickness  and  the  use  of  cow7s  for  draft, 
•when  not  accustomed  to  it,  has  a  marked  effect  in 
diminishing  the  number  and  size  of  globules.  Suc- 
culent food  decreases  the  size  and  increases  the  num- 
ber of  globules ;  oats,  bran  and  linseed  meal  increase 
their  size.  Age  is  apparently  without  effect.  Morn- 
ing's milk  has  larger  globules  than  evening's  milk. 
The  first  part  of  the  milking  has  fewer  and  smaller 
globules  than  the  last. 

Butter-fat  is  liquid  at  from  85°  to  105°  F.,  when 
cooled  below  00°  it  becomes  of  a  crumbly  consistency  ; 
notwithstanding  milk  may  be  cooled  to  32°  without  the 


12  A  New  Dairy  Industry. 

suspended  fats  becoming  hard,  only  below  o'2c  or  by 
mechanical  agitation  the  form  of  the  globules  is  lost, 
they  become  solid  and  their  contour  rugged. 

On  standing,  the  globules  rise  to  the  surface  by  vir- 
tue of  their  minor  specific  weight  and  they 
.form  the  cream,  while  the  milk  beneath  it  is 
termed  skim  milk,  which,  however,  is  not 
entirely  free  of  fat,  because  the  minutest 
of  the  fat  globules  find  it  impossible  to  push 
through  the  viscuous  nrilkfluid  to  reach  the 
top.  Warmth  favors  the  ascending  of  the 
globules,  cold  retards  it,  but  we  avoid  the 
warmth  because  it  involves  a  rapid  decom- 
position of  the  milk.  A  large  number  of  in- 
struments have  been  invented  for  the  pur- 
pose of  ascertaining  the  quantity  of  fats ; 
some  of  them  aim  to  accurately  measure  the 
Cremometer.  qliantity  of  cream  raised  iii  twenty-four 
hours  and  are  called  cremometers,  others  purport  to 
ascertain  the  percentage  of  fats  by  diluting  milk  with 
water  and  making  it  translucent  until  a  certain  mark 
on  the  instrument  is  visible  ;  these  are  termed  lacto- 
scopes.  By  far  more  exact  and  scientifically  correct 
is  the  method  of  Soxhlet,  who  ascertains  the  specific 
Aveight  of  fat  in  the  milk  ;  his  apparatus  is,  however, 
too  complicated  to  be  of  much  use  outside  of  the 
chemist's  laboratory. 

The  method  that  gives  the  best  results  for  practical 
working  of  the  dairy  industry  is  the  one  that  dissolves 
the  casein  bv  an  excess  of  acid  under  the  influence  of 


Milk  and  Milking.  13 

heat  and  rotatory  motion.  The  best  known  in  this 
country  of  this  class  is  the  Babcock  tester,  the  use  of 
which  I  shall  describe  further  on. 


TEST  SET  FOR  CREAM. 

We  need  not  go  into  the  detail  of  the  different  fats 
or  fat  acids  composing  the  butter-fat,  such  as  butt- 
yrine,  capronine,  capryl,  latirine,  myristine,  palmitine, 
stearine,  arachine,  olein  and  glycerine  acid,  further 
than  to  remember  that  it  is  the  varying  amount  of 
these  fat  acids  contained  in  the  feed  we  give  the  cow 
that  produce  the  varying  degree  of  either  firmness  or 
grease-like  consistency  in  the  butter. 

The  color  of  butter  also  is  largely  dependent  on 
the  relative  predominating  of  one  or  more  of  the 
above-named  fatty  acids. 

Another  characteristic  ingredient  of  milk  is  milk 
sugar.  Under  the  influence  of  different  ferments, 
among  which  principally  the  baccillus  acidi  lactici  is 
noted,  milk  sugar  is  transformed  into  milk  acid. 


14  A  New  Dairy  Industry. 

Milk  sugar  is  sometimes  attacked  by  a  rosary-formed 
species  of  a  coccus,  engendering  a  slimy  fermentation, 
which  results  in  what  we  know  as  slimy  or  long  milk, 
which  is  generally  unfit  for  the  extraction  of  butter, 
because  the  minute  fat  globules  are  unable  to  rise  in 
this  viscuous  fluid  and  form  the  cream. 

In  connection  with  these  ferments,  it  may  be  men- 
tioned that  some  of  them,  like  the  Sacharomyces 
cerevesise  and  the  Dispora  caucasica,  are  used  to  bring 
milk  to  an  alcoholic  fermentation,  in  which  state  it 
possesses  intoxicating  properties,  and  by  reason  of  these 
is  valued  as  a  beverage  and  largely  consumed  by 
various  tribes  of  Turkestan  and  Circassia  under  the 
name  of  Kumys  and  Kefyr. 

Other  organic  matter  contained  in  milk  is  a  minute 
quantity  of  citric  acid,  a  number  of  aromatics,  like 
anisol,  cuminol,  cymol,  tymol,  in  fact,  all  such  as  are 
found  in  the  food  of  herbivorous  animals  and  traces 
of  fibrin. 

Of  anorganic  or  mineral  matter,  it  is  principally 
sodium  and  phosphoric  acid  that  merit  attention,  as 
we  know  that  cows  with  protracted  periods  of  lacta- 
tion are  deficient  in  these  ingredients.  When  we, 
therefore,  consider  that  a  healthy  and  normal  formation 
of  bone  in  a  child  is  in  great  manner  dependent  on 
the  unstinted  assimilation  of  phosphoric  acid  in  its 
milk,  we  see  the  justice  of  refusing  the  milk  of  such 
animals  whenever  the  manufacture  of  infants'  milk  is 

aimed  at. 

/• 

Quantity  and  quality  of  milk  are,  as  we  may  sup- 


Milk  and  Milking.  15 

pose,  greatly  influenced  by  the  quality  of  food,  the 
management  of  the  feeding  and  the  breed  and  indi- 
viduality of  the  animal. 

Medicinal  qualities  contained  in  the  food  or  pasture 
eaten  by  the  cows  may  reappear  in  the  milk  and 
trouble  the  consumer  ;  for  instance,  the  feeding  of 
cabbage  leaves  to  cows  produces  flatulence 
and  pains  in  most  infants  which  consume 
such  milk  ;  also  the  acidity  of  feed  like  that 
in  wet  and  acid  brewers'  grains  passes  into 
the  milk  and  makes  it  unfit  for  infants'  food. 
Increased  feeding  of  albuminoids  favors  an  in- 
creased production  of  fat  in  the  milk,  while 
a  feeding  with  a  preponderance  of  carbohy- 
drates is  followed  by  a  loss  of  albumen  and 
fat  in  the  milk.  The  quantity  of  milk  is  in- 
fluenced also  by  the  periods  of  lactation  ;  im- 
mediately after  parturition  it  is  at  its  height, 
and  from  that  time  decreases  generally,  not 
gradually  but  in  about  three  well  defined  peri- 
ods the  duration  of  which  is  naturally  depend-  Dair^her_ 
ent  on  the  entire  duration  of  lactation,  which,  mometer- 
as  we  all  know,  is  exceedingly  variable,  both  as  to  every 
separate  animal  as  also  in  the.  several  lactations  of 
one  and  the  same  animal.  A  lengthened  period  of 
lactation  is  acquired  by  heredity  and  confirmed  by 
judicious  management  at  the  hands  of  the  milker. 

Concerning  the  qualitative  changes  of  milk  during 
the  period  of  lactation,  there  is  no  harmony  of  opin- 
ion prevailing,  yet  a  majority  of  investigators  claim 


Dairv  Industry. 

that  towards  the  end  of  the  lactation  the  percentage 
of  solids  and  of  fats  grows.  With  reference  to  the 
time  of  day  at  which  it  is  drawn,  it  is  generally  con- 
ceded that  in  barn  feeding  the  quantity  of  morning's 
milk  is  larger  than  that  of  the  evening's  milk,  but 
that  the  latter  is  richer. 

Spaying,  the  removal  of  the  cow's  ovaries  by  a  sur- 
gical operation,  has  the  effect  to  prolong  the  period 
of  lactation,  in  some  instances  which  are  on  record 
for  a  time  of  three  years  running,  and  upward.  The 
length  of  the  period  of  lactation  is  one  of  the  most 
important  factors  in  judging  the  value  of  a  cow,  but 
for  obvious  reasons  castration  should  only  be  executed 
on  such  animals  as  by  nature  are  arriving  at  the  close 
of  their  remunerative  career  or  of  their  generative 
functions. 

From  the  foregoing  we  should  receive  the  impres- 
sion that  the  udder  of  the  cow  is  a  valuable  machine, 
one  whose  handling  should  be  thoroughly  understood 
by  every  person — male  or  female — called  upon  to 
A\  ork  it.  Where  is  the  wisdom  of  spending  a  large 
sum  of  money  on  a  superior  cow  if  her  udder  is  to  be 
handled  by  an  ignorant  and  careless  milker?  In 
every  other  trade  w.e  expect  from  the  workman, 
and  even  from  the  apprentice,  an  exact  knowledge 
and  familiarity  with  the  tools  he  uses  and  with  the 
processes  embraced  in  the  application  of  his  trade. 
The  average  fanner  or  dairyman,  however,  seems  to 
be  an  exception  to  this  rule,  if  we  may  judge  by  the 
lack  of  knowledge  he  possesses  as  to  the  physical 


Milk  and  Milking.  17 

make-up  of  the  cow.  Drawing  the  milk  from  a  cow 
seems  an  operation  of  such  absolute  simplicity  to  the 
mind  of  many  that  nothing  can  be  said  about  it  more 
than  they  already  know,  and  yet  an  ignorant  milker 
is  apt  to  spoil  the  best  cow  in  a  short  time. 

Milking  is  generally  done  on  the  right  side  of  the 
cow.  The  milker  sits  on  a  low  stool  which  in  differ- 
ent localities  has  one,  two,  three  or  four  legs,  the 
milk  pail  pressed  and  held  firmly  between  his  knees, 
his  head  inclined  against  the  paunch  of  the  cow.  The 
cow's  tail  may  be  secured  by  some  device  and  pre- 
vented from  striking  the  milker's  head,  but  unless 
flies  are  very  bad  it  should  be  left  loose.  The  milker's 
hands  should  be  scrupulously  clean.  Whether  the 
milker's  hands  should  be  wet  or  dry  is  an  open  ques- 
tion, as  both  methods  are  quite  extensively  practiced. 
Milking  with  a  dry  and  dirty  hand  is,  perhaps,  a 
cleanlier  operation  than  milking  with  a  wet  and  dirty 
hand.  We  have  the  painful  conviction  that  a  greater 
number  of  cows  are  milked  with  dirty  hands  than 
with  clean  hands  and  it  may  be,  therefore,  safer  to 
advocate  the  use  of  the  dry  hand. 
However,  when  milk  is  drawn  with 
intention  to  manufacture  it  into  in- 
fants' food,  and  the  necessary  precau- 
tionary measures  for  cleanliness  are 
strictlv  observed,  milking  with  the  wet 

Milk  Pail  and  Strainer. 

hand  (that  is  to  say,  putting  a  few  drops 
of  milk  in  each  hand)  may  be  adopted  with  consider- 
able advantage  to  the  animal,  because  the  operation 


18  A   New  Dairy  Industry. 

is  then  not  so  irritating  to  the  subcutaneous  nerves  of 
the  teat  and  udder.  Then,  too,  a  sore  and  bruised 
teat  may  by  the  wet  hand  be  milked  without  pain  to 
the  cow,  while  the  dry  hand  may  produce  restlessness. 
Lastly,  it  may  be  claimed  that  the  wet  hand  comes 
closer  in  imitating  the  function  which  nature  ex- 
pected the  teat  to  be  used  for — the  sucking  by  the 
calf's  mouth. 

A  method  which  finds  its  place  between  the  two 
just  mentioned,  and  which  is  extensively  practiced  in 
Switzerland  and  Southern  Germany,  is  to  milk  with 
the  dry  hand,  but  to  apply  a  small  quantity  of  pure 
lard  about  the  size  of  a  large  pea — to  the  fingers  and 
thumb — the  application  to  be  repeated  with  each  cow 
milked.  The  lard  is  carried  around  in  a  small  metal 
cup  fastened  to  or  around  the  leg  of  the  milk-stool. 

The  milker  should  grasp  one  front  teat  and  one 
back  teat  of  opposite  sides  of  the  udder  so  that  the 
emptying  of  the  two  halves  of  the  udder  proceed 
simultaneously.  Owing  to  the  position  of  the  milker's 
head,  the  milking  cannot  be  followed  writh  the  eyes, 
therefore  he  must  be  guided  by  the  touch  and  hearing  ; 
for  this  reason  all  loud  conversation  or  other  vocifera- 
tion should  be  interdicted  during  milking  time,  be- 
cause this  gives  occasion  to  interrupt  the  milking. 
Apart  from  the  loss  of  time,  the  interruptions  are  not 
good  for  the  cow  because  they  multiply  the  nervous 
irritation,  causing  the  animal  to  become  restless,  which 
should  be  avoided.  Many  of  the  best  milkers  are 
accustomed  to  hum  a  tune  while  milking,  and  this  is 


Milk  and  Milking.  It) 

an  excellent  practice,  as  it  has  a  plainly  apparent 
soothing  effect  on  the  cow. 

To  learn  to  milk  well  it  should  be  practiced  slowly, 
because  both  hands  must  become  equally  expert;  the 
pressure  of  the  hand  on  the  teat  must  be  applied  in 
regular  alternation,  so  that  when  one  hand  closes 
around  the  teat  the  other  hand  opens,  and  the  flow  of 
milk  into  the  pail  is  continuous  ;  an  experienced  ear 
can  detect  at  once  if  a  milker  works  well. 

The  full  hand  should  grasp  the  teat  as  high  up  to- 
wards the  udder  as  possible,  then  the  thumb  and  in- 
dex close  tightly  around  the  teat  so  as  to  shut  off  the 
milk  contained  in  the  teat  from  retreating  into  the 
milk  cistern  when  the  pressure  on  the  teat  is  applied. 
Then  the  other  fingers,  one  by  one  from  the  index 
downward,  close  around  the  teat  in  rapid  succession 
and  press  out  the  milk.  The  amount  of  pressure  re- 
quired to  press  the  teat  depends  on  the  more  or  less 
developed  muscles  that  encircle  the  orifice  of  the  teat 
for  the  purpose  of  retaining  the  milk,  which  would, 
without  this  provision,  flow  to  the  ground  as  fast  as 
produced.  Cows  in  which  these  muscles  are  strongly 
developed  are  called  hard  milkers.  As  soon  as  the 
milk  has  been  pressed  from  the  teat,  the  hand  eases 
up,  and  immediately  the  milk  from  the  cistern  rushes 
into  the  teat,  filling  it  again  ;  the  pressure  of  the  hand 
and  fingers  is  repeated  until  the  firstly  grasped  pair  of 
teats  do  110  longer  give  a  full  flow,  whereupon  both 
hands  change  to  the  two  remaining  teats.  During 
the  rest  now  given  to  the  first  milked  pair  of  teats, 


20  A  New  Dairy  Industry. 

the  milk  has  time  to  collect  from  the  remotest  cells 
of  the  glands  and  fill  the  milk  cistern  anew.  This 
changing  of  hands  to  alternate  pairs  of  teats  is  re- 
peated as  long  as  milk  will  come,  and  should  be  con- 
tinued without  interruption.  The  more  rapid  and  the 
more  symetrical  the  work  can  be  performed,  the  better 
the  cow  will  allow  herself  to  be  milked,  the  more  and 
the  richer  milk  she  will  give.  The  upward  motion 
of  the  hand  at  every  repeated  closing  round  the  teat 
produces  a  kneading  motion  on  the  udder,  which  is  of 
great  importance  to  keep  the  milk  in  the  cistern  in 
commotion.  When  the  flow  of  milk  seems  to  have 
been  exhausted  by  the  milking,  then  each  teat  is 
taken  between  the  thumb  and  index  finger  and 
u  stripped  "  downward.  This  should  be  done  merely 
to  insure  an  absolutely  thorough  removal  of  all  milk 
from  the  udder,  and  should  never  be  resorted  to  when 
the  udder  is  filled,  because  it  is  apt  to  spoil  the  udder. 
Careless  removing  of  all  milk  from  the  udder  will  re- 
sult in  serious  damage,  because  it  has,  aside  from  the 
loss  of  the  milk,  a  deleterious  influence  on  the  glands, 
tending  to  interrupt  the  productive  action  in  the 
minute  cells  where  the  milk  is  formed.  An  extended 
period  of  lactation  has  been  bred  into  cows,  and  we 
should  try  to  confirm  this  habit  by  milking  the  heifer 
after  her  first  calf  as  long  as  possible,  even  if  the 
quantity  of  milk  given  is,  in  time,  only  a  small  one, 
because,  allowing  her  to  dry  off  too  soon  before  her 
second  calf,  this  habit  of  drying  up  is  soon  confirmed. 
Milking  is  a  tiring  task  and  not  too  many  cows 


Milk  and  Mi  I  kino-.  21 

should  be  apportioned  to  the  milker,  because  a  tired 
milker  does  not  do  good  work,  particularly  as  some 
cows  are  difficult  to  milk  ;  some  have  an  uncommonly 
small  orifice  in  the  teat,  some  have  strong  closing 
muscles  ;  others,  again,  strive  to  retain  the  milk  en- 
tirely. This  may  happen  in  consequence  of  the  cow 
feeling  pain  from  the  milking  as,  for  instance,  in  sore 
teats,  or  she  may  be  afraid  of  ill  treatment,  or  try  to 
retain  the  milk  for  her  calf.  To  find  an  explanation 
for  this  voluntary  retention  of  the  milk  we  must  go 
into  the  anatomy  of  the  udder.  We  have  already 
mentioned  the  muscles  closing  the  orifice  of  the  teatr 
we  shall  now  see  that  a  large  quantity  of  blood  is- 
brought  from  the  heart  to  the  udder  in  strong  arter- 
ies, which,  branching  out  into  the  minutest  vessels,, 
spread  through  the  entire  milk  glands,  enveloping" 
the  minutest  cells  and  engendering  their  action  of 
producing  milk,  and  that  this  blood  is  led  back  again 
to  the  heart  by  an  equally  complicated  system  of 
veins  that  are  spread  over  the  entire  inner  surface  of 
the  udder,  even  down  to  the  point  of  the  teat  envelop- 
ing the  entire  tube  or  duct  of  the  teat  with  a  network 
of  veins.  If  the  cow  now  retains  her  breath  she  pro- 
duces a  check  on  the  flow  of  blood  which  tries  to- 
return  to  the  heart,  and,  in  consequence,  the  veins  in 
the  udder  become  swollen  and  therefore  help  to  close 
the  orifice  and  duct ;  if  she  manages  to  repeat  this 
retention  of  breath — in  short  repetitions — she  is  able 
to  suspend  the  flow  of  milk  entirely.  The  remedy 
for  this  bad  habit  is  either  to  give  some  mash  or 


Dairy  Industry. 

drink  which  the  cow  likes,  or  to  fasten  a  bunch  of 
straw  in  her  month  ;  or,  what  is  nearly  always  the 
most  effective,  to  treat  her  with  quietness  and 
patience,  at  the  same  time  milking  persistent!}'.  If 
another  person  is  present  to  stroke  along  the  under 
part  of  the  cow's  neck  she  will  give  up  the  retention 
of  breath  at  once.  When  a  cow  retains  her  milk  on 
account  of  pain  as,  for  instance,  with  chapped  teats 
which  frequently  occurs  during  first  spring  pasture,  a 
remedy  is  only  found  by  kind  treatment  and  milking 
rapidly  with  a  soft  hand.  Such  teats  should  be  care- 
fully dried  after  each  milking  and  an  ointment 
applied.  Whenever,  the  milker  has  any  reason  to 
suspect  any  derangement  of  the  cow  he  should  taste 
the  milk  from  every  teat  and  look  at  its  color ;  any 
carelessness  in  this  respect  may  result  in  spoiling  the 
milk  from  the  whole  stable.  As  a  rule,  milking 
should  be  performed  only  morning  and  evening, 
making  the  intervening  time  as  equal  as  possible. 

As  to  the  advisibility  of  feeding  during  milking 
time  there  are  many  reasons  against  its  being  adopted. 
When  cows  are  once  used  to  being  milked  before 
feeding  they  are  much  quieter  and  the  business  is 
concluded  much  more  rapidly ;  but  there  are  other 
reasons  of  importance,  as  we  shall  see  later,  for  not 
feeding  during  milking  time,  particularly  for  not  giv- 
ing any  dry  roughage. 

The  dexterous  strong  hand  will  always  be  the  best 
milking  machine  ;  only  in  case  of  disease  the  milking 
tube  should  be  made  use  of  and  no  other  milking 


Milk  and  Milking.  2:5 

machine  of  any  kind  should  be  applied.  One  of  the 
most  essential  requisites  during  the  times  of  rest  for 
the  milk  cow  is  absolute  quiet,  guarding-  her  against 
fright  and  preventing  worrying  or  violent  exertion. 
A  great  deal  has  been  said  and  written  about  the  neces- 
sity of  giving  cows  daily  exercise  in  the  open  air,  and 
though  nothing  is  to  be  said  against  pasturing  in  fine 
weather,  it  is  certain  that  in  very  hot  or  in  cold  and  wet 
weather  the  stable  or  barn  is  the  only  proper  place  to 
keep  the  cow  in.  Every  exertion,  therefore  also  that  ne- 
cessarily combined  with  locomotion,  is  an  expenditure 
of  force,  a  wrear  on  the  muscle,  and  this  wear  must  be 
replenished  by  an  extra  amount  of  feed,  the  quantity  of 
which  will  be  found  in  exact  relation  with  the  dis- 
tance that  has  to  be  traveled  over  and  the  time  con- 
sumed by  the  animal  until  it  has  been  able  to  graze  a 
sufficiency  for  its  needs.  It  is  easy  to  see  that  a  cow 
which  is  enabled  to  eat  all  she  requires  in  one  hour's 
time  and  can  then  lie  down,  in  perfect  rest,  to  ru- 
minate and  digest,  is  in  an  eminently  better  position 
to  turn  her  food  into'  milk  than  the  cow  that  has  to 
walk  about,  for  three  or  four  hours  at  a  time,  grazing 
before  the  feeling  of  hunger  leaves  her.  Nothing 
should,  however,  be  more  strongly  condemned  than 
the  practice  of  leaving  cows  in  the  open  air  during 
midday  in  hot  Summer  weather.  Not  only  does  the 
intense  heat  of  the  sun  tend  to  harden  the  skin,  con- 
tracting the  pores,  and  thereby  diminishing  the  gen- 
eral vitality  of  the  animal,  but  also  the  constant 
irritation  produced  by  flies  and  like  insects  has  a 


24  A   AVec  Dairy  Industry. 

notable  and  injurious  effect  on  the  milk  production, 
which  will  be  the  more  easily  noticed  the  higher  the 
nervous  system  of  the  cow,  as  an  individual,  or  as  a 
member  of  her  breed,  is  strung.  Also  the  sexual 
functions  are  often  seriously  affected,  postponed  or 
obliterated  by  this  irritation. 

Having"  now  acquired  a  cursory  idea  of  how  milk 
is  formed,  and  how  it  should  be  drawn,  let  us  turn  to 
the  influences  which  tend  to  spoil  it,  the  methods 
employed  to  counteract  these  influences  and  give  milk 
good  keeping  qualities. 


CHAPTER    II. 

Origin  ot  Bacteria  in  /IIMlfe  anfc  tbe 
tions  ff  avorablc  for  tbeir  Breefcing 
anfc 


It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  milk  undergoes  a  radi- 
cal chemical  change  only  a  few  hours  after  it  has  been 
drawn.  This  change,  to  our  visible  conception,  con- 
sists in  the  milk  becoming  sonr,  in  other  words  the 
milk  sugar  has  changed  to  milk  acid  and,  in  conse- 
quence of  this  acidity,  the  casein  has  been  separated 
from  its  .connection  with  lime  and  is  set  free  —  the 
milk  u  curdles."  We  generally  notice  only  this  first 
phase,  because  in  itself  it  is  sufficient  to  unfit  milk 
for  further  use.  A  second  phase  follows  in  which  the 
casein  is  partly  dissolved  and  fermentation  sets  in, 
bubbles  of  gas  forming,  and  the  process  is  wound  up 
Avitli  real  putrid  decomposition  and  the  forming  of 
mould. 

In  the  microscope  we  possess  an  instrument  that 
enables  us  to  enter  into  a  study  of  the  composition 
and  life  of  the  lowest  organisms,  and  also  a  means  to 
enable  us  to  make  and  study  their  culture,  through 
which  it  has  been  demonstrated  that  every  process  of 
decomposition  of  organic  matter  is*  due  to  the  action 
of  such  organisms  and  that  they,  somehow,  disin- 


26  A  Neiv  Dairy  Industry. 

tegrate  the  more  complicated  matter  and  are  able  to 
reduce  it  to  the  primary  ingredients  of  composition. 
When  we  look  at  a  fluid  or  other  matter  in  a  state 
of  decomposition,  under  the  microscope,  we  notice 
strewn  over  the  entire  field  a  complexity  of  threads, 
longer  and  shorter  tubes  or  cylinders  and  egg-shaped 
bodies,  and  going  011  between  all  these  is  seen  a  slug- 
gish rotatory  movement  of  one  or  more  of  the  chain 
of  cylinders,  possibly,  too,  a  worm-like  movement  of 
the  spiral  threads.  By  the  means  of  different  cultures 
we  are  able  to  separate  the  several  organisms  of 
this  intricacy,  when  wre  shall  find  that  the  spiral 
threads  and  the  small  tubes  are  parts  or  spores  of  a 
mould  fungus,  and  the  small  oval  bodies  are  prohably 
ferments,  while  those  that  we  saw  in  the  most  active 
motion  belong  to  a  series  of  organisms  which  have- 
one  peculiarity  in  common — they  multiply  with  ex- 
traordinary rapidity  by  breaking  up  into  pieces  and 
every  one  of  these  pieces  forms  a  young  germ.  Every 
liquid,  be  it  of  animal  or  vegetable  origii^  when  ex- 
posed to  the  air,  contains  a  large  number  of  such 
organisms.  Milk  is  no  exception  and  it  contains 
them  not  only  when  it  commences  to  turn  to  visible 
decomposition  but  immediately  after  leaving  the 
udder,  yes,  even  in  the  lower  part  of  the  udder  itself. 
Thus  it  is  easily  explained  why  milk  decomposes  so 
rapidly  after  having  been  drawn.  How  and  by  what 
route  do  these  organisms  enter  milk  ?  Are  they 
already  present  in  the  glands  of  the  udder  or  do  they 
enter  the  milk  later?  These  questions  can  1  rj  |:osi~ 


The   Origin  of  Bacteria  in  Milk.  27 

tively  answered  by  the  assertion  that  the  glands  of  a" 
healthy  cow  give  off  milk  absolutely  free  from  such 
organisms.  We  call  such  milk  sterile.  Germs  enter, , 
manifestly,  from  the  outside  and  may  therefore  be 
termed  a  pollution  of  the  milk.  These  decomposing 
germs  are  encountered  in  great  abundance  where  or- 
ganic matter  is  in  the  act  of  disintegrating  into  its- 
composing  elements,  and  of  such  decomposing  matter 
there  is  enough  around  the  premises  where  we  draw 
milk — the  stable  ;  there  is,  in  fact,  generally  more 
than  necessary,  and  this  is  easily  brought  into  contact 
with  the  outer  cover  of  the  milk  glands — the  udder.. 
The  location  of  the  udder  of  our  domestic  animals- 
involves  a  continual  exposure  to  its  being  soiled  by 
the  excrements,  urine,  dust  from  the  bedding,  and' 
even  our  most  scrupulous  cleanliness  and  precaution 
cannot  prevent,  during  milking,  a  quantity  of  dirt,, 
particles  of  straw  and  fodder,  dust,  hair  and  excoria- 
tions from  finding  their  way  into  the  milk.  It  may, 
therefore,  be  taken  for  granted  that  the  greater  part 
of  dirt,  and,  therefore,  the  greatest  mass  of  spores,  is 
derived  from  the  udder,  as  well  from  the  external 
part  of  it  as  from  the  openings  in  the  teats,  and  even, 
from  the  interior  milk  cisterns.  Dairymen  know 
\vell  that  the  first  stoppings  when  commencing  to 
milk  are  by  no  means  favorable  for  the  making  of 
cheese,  and  in  many  dairies  I  have  found  it  customary 
to  milk  the  first  few  strippings  into  the  bedding. 
Many  of  the  germs  possess  very  active  motion  and 
from  a  soiled  teat  find  their  way  into  the  interior  of 


2S  A  Neic-   Dairy  Industry. 

the  duct.  Investigation  lias  proven  that  the  first 
milk  drawn  contains  about  fifty  to  eighty  thousand 
bacteria  to  a  tenth  of  a  cubic  inch,  while  the  next 
following  or,  we  may  say,  the  bulk  of  the  milking 
contains  about  five  thousand  to  the  same  quantity, 
and  only  the  last  quarts  drawn  are  nearly  or  entirely 
free  from  germs.  An  immigration  of  germs  by  way 
of  the  teats  cannot  be  doubted  and  is  the  cause,  not  in- 
frequently, of  some  forms  of  inflammation  of  the  udder. 
As  we  have  seen,  milk  is  already  polluted  at  its 
exit  from  the  soiled  udder,  and  again  by  the  dropping 
in  of  dirt  from  the  external  part  of  the  udder,  and 
when  we  consider  that  dung  is  nothing  more  or  less 
than  the  undigested  residue  of  the  fodder  eaten,  filled 
Avith  unutterable  numbers  of  bacteria  and  spores,  we 
-are  then  able  to  draw  a  conclusion  as  to  the  direct 
connection  existing  between  the  germs  found  in  milk 
:and  those  that  must  be  contained  in  the  food.  And, 
in  fact,  such  a  connection  can  be  traced  all  along  in 
the  milk  and  more  so  in  the  products  therefrom,  par- 
ticularly when  a  change  of  feed  occurs  or  when  fodder 
is  fed  which  is  filled  with  aeid  or  fermenting  organ- 
isms, such  as  wet  brewers'  and  distillers'  grains,  spoilt 
ensilage,  musty  hay,  mouldy  grain,  etc.  Practical 
•dairymen  know  perfectly  well  what  evil  effect  spoilt 
or  badly  kept  fodder  of  every  kind  has  on  the  quality 
-of  the  milk  and  its  products.  The  bedding  also  on 
which  cows  lie  or  stand  has  an  influence  on  the  bac- 
teriological contents  of  the  milk  ;  it  will  in  a  great 
measure  depend  on  the  soundness  and  freshness  of  the 


The   Origin  of  Bacteria  in  Milk,  '29 

bedding  which  is  perhaps  spoilt  by  having  been 
housed  in  bad  condition  and  containing'  spores  of 
mould,  rust,  smut  or  other  fungus  growths.  The 
cleanest  and  most  unobjectionable  bedding  in  every 
respect  is  moss  peat  (not  peat  moss).  A  great  in- 
fluence is  also  exercised  by  the  more  or  less  frequent 
changing  of  the  bedding,  because  any  carelessness  in 
this  respect  forces  the  animals  to  lie  down  in  the 
putrid  and  fermenting  matter. 

Very  often  milk  is  still  further  polluted  by  the  un- 
clean hands  of  the  person  milking,  by  insufficient 
cleansing  of  utensils  which  during  the  entire  hand- 
ling of  the  milk  are  brought  into  contact  with  it,  and, 
lastly,  by  the  dust  suspended  in  the  stable  air,  being 
partly  dust  from  the  feed  and  partly  from  the  bed- 
ding or  the  floor.  We  all  know  that  to  a  certain 
degree  this  contamination  of  milk  by  the  above  named 
matters  and,  therefore,  also  by  bacteria,  cannot  be 
entirely  avoided  and  some  of  these  are  even  absolutely 
necessary  for  the  extraction  of  the  products  of  milk, 
but  the  above  considerations  clearly  demonstrate  as 
does  also  longtime  experience  in  dairying,  that  it  is 
by  no  means  indifferent  what  degree  of  pollution  is 
attained  and  to  which  class  more  especially  the  bac- 
terial infection  belongs. 

When  we  recapitulate  all  that  has  been  hitherto 
said,  and  consider  that  all  these  bacteria  possess  a 
marked  altering  and  changing  influence  on  the  ingre- 
dients of  the  milk — some  slower,  others  more  rapidly, 
and  that  thev  assist  and  stimulate  one  another  in 


30  A  Aw1  Da irv  Industry. 

their  mission  to  decompose,  we  can  easily  compre- 
hend how  milk  that  is  heavily  disseminated  with 
bacteria  must  lose  its  keeping  qualities  and  that  a 
possibility  of  infection  by  bacteria,  which  is  bound 
to  produce  annoying-  complications  in  the  milk  and 
its  products,  is  by  far  greater  in  a  stable  with  chronic 
filthiness  than  where  methodical  care  is  taken  to  sup- 
press every  cause  for  such  infection. 

All  of  us  have  repeatedly  heard  complaints  on  the 
lack  of  cleanliness  in  the  stables  as  practiced  by  many 
farmers  ;  we  meet  with  these  complaints  in  every 
agricultural  journal,  in  the  reports  of  dairy  commis- 
sioners, commissioners  of  agriculture  and  presidents 
of  creamery  associations,  but  only  in  Germany  have  I 
noticed  an  effort  to  bring  this  degree  of  uncleanliness 
more  forcibly  unto  our  conception  by  the  unconles- 
table  figures  of  actual  weight.  Rcnk  found,  for  in- 
stance, an  average  of  0.01/>  grammes  of  cowdung  in 
every  quart  of  milk  sold  in  the  city  of  Halle,  of 
O.OOD  grammes  in  Munich  and  of  0.010  grammes  in 
Berlin.  This  gives  a  total  of  fifty  tons  of  cowdung 
per  annum  consumed  by  the  unsuspecting  public  of 
Berlin.  There  cannot  be  the  slightest  doubt  but 
what  the  same  state  of  affairs  prevails  in  this  country. 
The  number  of  bacteria  found  in  milk  gives  a  fail- 
scale  to  measure  the  cleanliness  by,  but  this  is  the 
case  only  when  investigation  closely  follows  the  milk- 
ing. CnopffotoXtA.  from  sixty  to  one  hundred  thousand 
germs  in  one  tenth  of  a  cubic  inch,  and  von  fa'cudcn- 
rcicJi  found  from  ten  to  twenty-five  thousand. 


77^6'   Origin  of  Bacteria  in  Milk.  31 

A  perfect  condition  of  the  milk  is  not  merely  de- 
pendent on  the  cleanliness  while  drawing  it,  bnt  also 
on  the  carefulness  with  which  milk  is  kept  after  milk- 
ing. It  is  easily  understood  that  unclean  vessels  and 
utensils  are  able  to  infect  clean  milk  with  bacteria> 
and  that  an  infection  with  these  will  unavoidably 
follow  if  milk  is  left  standing,  for  any  considerable 
time,  in  the  air  of  the  stable  impregnated  with  bac- 
teria. The  greatest  influence  on  the  number  of  bac- 
teria is,  however,  exercised  by  the  temperature  to 
which  milk  is  exposed  after  milking,  as  the  vitality  of 
bacteria  is  greatest  at  bloodheat  and  somewhat  above 
that. 

The  number  of  germs  will,  according  to  Wcig- 
maiui,  multiply  : 

a,  at  95°  F.  (5,  at  60°  F. 

(Bloodheat.)  (Cellar  temperature.) 

After  2  hours       23  fold  ...       4  fold 
"     :•>     "          oo    "'    .    .    .      0    " 

"      4     u          2M     "  8     u 


u  u 


1830     u  20 


.)  LooU  ...      ZO 

u     0     "       3800    "     .    .    .  435    " 

We  see  from  the  above  that  not  even  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  cellar  is  able  to  prevent  these  germs  from 
propagating,  although  for  the  first  few  hours  they  are 
considerably  restrained  from  so  doing.  The  preser- 
vation on  ice  has  a  far  better  result^ — a  number  of 
observations  made  were  unable  to  detect  any  increase 
worth  recording. 

It  is    sufficiently   clear  from    these    numbers    that 


temperature  exercises  an  enormous  influence  on  the 
propagating-  powers  of  bacteria  and  explains  the  fact, 
so  widely  known,  that  milk  which  is  at  once  cooled 
after  drawing  keeps  much  longer  than  uncooled  milk. 
This  influence  is  so  great  that  even  a  very  cleanly 
drawn  but  insufficiently  cooled  milk  is  apt  to  contain 
more  bacteria  and  spoil  sooner  than  a  filthy  milk 
verv  stron^lv  cooled. 


CHAPTER    III. 
^Decomposition  of 

We  saw  a  short  while  ago  that  all  decomposition  of 
organic  matter  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  influence  and. 
activity  of  bacteria,  and  when  we  see  that  milk,  soon 
after  having  been  drawn,  may  contain  such  enormous 
numbers  of  bacteria,  it  is  not  to  be  considered  strange 
that  it  should  soon  spoil.  The  first  noticeable  act  of 
vitality  of  these  inhabitants  of  milk  is  generally  the 
souring  of  the  milk,  /.  c.,  the  transformation  of  milk 
sugar  into  milk  acid.  A  considerable  number  of  such 
bacteria  are  now  known  which  cause  this  transforma- 
tion, and  we  know  of  them  further  that  they  have 
only  this  effect  and  no  other.  In  the  course  of  this 
milk  acid  fermentation,  as  we  often  hear  it  called,  not 
all  of  the  milk  sugar  is  transformed  into  milk  acid 
but  only  a  certain  part  of  it ;  in  other  words,  a  certain 
amount  of  milk  acid  is  only  formed  and  after  its  for- 
mation the  fermentation  or  transformation  comes  to  a 
standstill.  Bacterial  life  has  ceased  to  make  itself 
felt,  or,  to  use  the  expression  of  the  renowned  French' 
scientist,  Pasteur,  "the  acid  ferment  ( fenucnl  lac- 
tiquc]  has  become  latent." 

The  forming  of  milk  acid  is,  then,  the  cause  of  the 
casein,  the  most  important  of  the  albuminoids  of  milk, 
being  liberated  from  its  affinity  with  lime,  and  the 
milk  "curdles."  This  kind  of  curdling  is  essentially 


34  A  New  Dairy  Industry. 

different  from  other  forms  of  curdling  of  milk,  which 
are  partially  based — similar  to  the  acid  curdling — on 
the  action  of  a  living  ferment,  the  bacteria ;  partially, 
however,  their  appearance  is  due  to  the  action  of  a 
dead  or  so  called  chemical  ferment. 

The  best  known  curdling  is  the  one  accomplished 
by  rennet  which  is  a  chemical  ferment.  By  this  pro- 
cess the  casein  of  the  milk  is  chemically  changed, 
inasmuch  as  it  is  transformed  after  separating  the 
u  whey  protein,"  a  peptonic  matter,  into  so-called  cheese 
or,  as  we  often  call  this  albuminous  matter,  into  para- 
casein. 

This  rennet  curdling  is  similiar  to  another  curdling 
of  milk,  which  must  be  laid  to  the  action  of  certain 
bacteria  and  which  envolves  a  simultaneous  transfor- 
mation of  the  casein.  Certain  bacteria  are  able  to 
cause  a  ferment  to  exude,  which  acts  similarly  to 
rennet  on  milk,  forcing  it,  without  previous  acidulat- 
ing to  a  rennet-like  coagulation  ;  however,  in  most 
cases  this  u  bacterial  rennet,"  as  we  might  call  it, 
seems  to  have  the  effect  of  again  dissolving  the 
formed  cheesy  mass  and  transforming  it  into  a  soluble 
matter — "  peptonising  the  albumen,"  as  the  scientist 
would  call  it.  This  bacterial  ferment,  therefore,  be- 
haves quite  differently  from  the  rennet  ferment  which 
does  not  have  the  dissolving  power.  It  is,  however, 
not  excluded  that  these  bacteria  may,  at  the  same 
time  or  later,  separate  a  second  ferment  which  posesses 
this  very  effect  to  a  certain  degree. 

Now,  raw  milk  at  all  times  contains  such  bacteria 


Decomposition  of  Milk.  o5 

\vhich  tend  towards  its  being  curdly,  be  it  either  acid 
or  rennet  curdling ;  in  most  cases  the  acid  bacteria 
predominate  in  numbers,  or,  at  least,  their  activity  is 
more  readily  noted.  Aside  from  this  acid-curdling, 
and  dependant  on  the  proportion  of  the  acid  bacteria 
to  the  rennet  bacteria,  we  find  that  a  rennet  curdling 
is  going  on  later,  simultaneously  or  even  sooner,  and 
which,  in  most  cases,  is  not  noticeable  because  the  acid 
curdling  has  already  been  completed.  Only  in  the 
case  where  the  number  of  rennet  bacteria  predomi- 
nate by  far,  we  see  a  curdling  without  previous  acidu- 
lating which  happens  in  the  "cheesy  milk."  These 
rennet  bacteria — which  are  also  commonly  called 
butter  acid  bacteria,  because  they  generally  possess 
the  property  of  producing  butter  acid — play  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  keeping  qualities  of  milk.  While 
we  find  it  easy  to  counteract  or  retard  the  milk  acid 
fermentation,  and  thereby  the  acid  curdling,  we  shall 
see  that  it  is  connected  with  considerable  difficulty  to 
avoid  the  rennet  curdling  by  bacteria. 

From  the  foregoing,  the  reader  should  receive  the 
impression  of  the  great  importance  of  producing  a 
milk  containing  the  smallest  possible  number  of  bac- 
teria, as  upon  this  depends  the  success  of  manufac- 
turing it  into  normal  infants'  milk,  and,  for  this  same 
reason,  it  has  been  found  unrecommeiidable  to  sepa- 
rate the  agricultural  part,  the  production  of  the  cow's 
milk,  from  the  technical  part ;  the  treatment  we  shall 
describe  later  on. 

No  manufacturer  of  infants'  milk,  no  matter  what 


c  Dairy  Industry. 

name  it  is  sold  under,  can  conscientiously  guarantee 
the  pureness  and  healthfulness  of  his  milk  unless  he 
has  had  personal  supervision  and  control  of  the  physi- 
cal condition  of  the  cows,  the  food  they  have  eaten 
and  the  treatment  thev  have  received. 


s  of  preserving  /HMlfe. 

As  \ve  have  seen  in  the  foregoing,  the  changes  in 
milk,  more  especially  its  curdling,  are  due  to  the 
action  of  bacteria  (and  to  some  other  fungus  spores), 
we  shall,  therefore,  succeed  in  preserving  it  if  we  can 
either  defer  the  action  of  the  bacteria  or  remove  them 
entirely.  Both  methods  have  been  tried  for  some 
time.  Efforts  have  been  made  to  prevent  the  im- 
pending souring  by  adding  chemicals,  the  curdling 
by  so-called  preservalines,  and  also  to  counteract,  by 
refrigerating,  these  phases  of  commencing  decompo- 
sition ;  but  of  late  all  efforts  have  been  directed  to- 
wards killing  the  bacteria  themselves  through  the 
application  of  heat,  so  as  to  secure  in  this  manner  the 
keeping  qualities  of  milk  even  for  a  longer  period. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
preserving  fllMlfe  b£  Cbemicals, 

I  have  hesitated  for  some  time  to  say  anything  on 
this  subject,  because  the  preservation  of  milk  by 
chemicals,  even  if  it  were  justifiable  to  practice  it,  is 
not  a  procedure  that  in  any  manner  or  form  should 
be  contemplated  by  those  for  whom  I  write,  nor  is  it 
in  any  way  conducive,  of  better  results  towards  attain- 
ing a  milk  with  keeping  qualities  sufficiently  pro- 
nounced to  serve  all  requirements,  as  the  methods 
which  will  anon  be  treated,  such  as  cooling,  Pasteur- 
izing and  sterilizing,  and  which  are  now  conceded, 
and  justly  so,  to  be  the  only  methods  which  should 
lawfully  be  countenanced  anyivherc.  Yet  when  I 
reflect  that  it  is  only  by  exposing  the  misuse  of  chem- 
icals for  preserving  milk  that  a  chance  will  offer 
itself  to  dwell  on  the  pernicious  results  which  may 
follow,  it  will  be  accorded  that  it  may  be  best  to  show 
all  there  is  in  it. 

Of  the  many  and  most  frequently  used  ingredients 
which  have  been  adopted  by  the  smaller  retail  milk 
dealers,  and  are  still  used,  to  prevent  or  cover  the  im- 
pending souring  of  milk  (and  often  in  the  erroneous 
supposition  of  retarding  it),  none  are  more  generally 
used  than  soda.  By  its  admixture  it  is  brought 
about  that  the  milk  acid,  formed  from  milk  sugar  by 
the  action  of  acidulating  bacteria,  is  dulled  and,  con- 
sequently, not  perceptible  to  the  organs  ,  of  .  taste. 
During  this  process  the  multiplication  of  germs  in 

4 


08  A  Nan'  Dairy  Industry. 

the  milk  has  not  been  counteracted  or  suspended,  but 
has,  on  the  contrary,  been  favored. 

Bacteriology  has  taught  us  that  an  alkaline  reac- 
tion is  extremely  conducive  to  the  welfare  of  bacteria, 
therefore  the  addition  of  this  chemical  may  for  several 
hours  disguise  the  acidity,  but  in  no  manner  will  it 
retard  the  curdling,  with  which  end  in  view  it  has 
probably  been  added.  Milk  treated  with  soda  and 
kept  at  a  temperature  of  80°  F.  will  keep  from 
becoming  sour  for  from  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours ; 
at  95°  F.  for  from  six  to  ten  hours,  while  the  curdl- 
ing, however,  has  by  no  means  been  retarded. 

A  simple  experiment  will  show  that  the  curdling 
sets  in  at  about  the  same  time  in  samples  of  pure 
milk  and  in  such  treated  with  soda,  if  kept  at  the 
same  temperature.  As  the  beginning  of  curdling  in 
all  pure  milk  is  nearly  entirely  dependant  on  the  quan- 
tity of  milk  acid  formed  therein,  it  would  seem  at 
first  sigl;t  as  if  this  result  were  contradictory.  We 
have,  however,  seen  that  the  curdling  of  milk  is  not 
only  enacted  by  such  bacteria,  which  produce  acidity, 
but  also  as  well  by  a  large  number  of  other  species  of 
bacteria  which  have  the  faculty  to  produce  a  rennet- 
like  ferment.  By  a  low  alkaline  reaction  the  propa- 
gation and  multiplication  of  bacteria  in  milk  is 
favored  and,  therefore,  also  their  effect,  so  that  the 
dulling  of  the  acid  is  compensated  by  the  more  rapid 
development  and  increased  activity  of  the  rennet  pro- 
ducing bacteria.  For  this  reason  the  result  of  such  in- 
vestigations depends  largely  on  the  quantity  of  rennet 


Preserving  Milk  by   Chemicals. 


producing"  bacteria  contained  in  the  milk.  If  we  now 
try  to  find  out  which  bacteria  are  of  the  rennet  pro- 
ducing kind,  we  shall  see  that  they  are  principally 
those  that  live  in  the  uppermost  layers  of  the  soil  and 
have  been  collected  with  the  hay  and  other  fodders,  so 
that  we  may  presume  that  such  milk  which  has  taken 
up  many  bacteria  in  the  stable,  or  which  has  been 
strongly  polluted  after  having  been  drawn,  will  more 
rapidly  advance  toward  rennet  curdling  than  milk 
which  has  been  less  infected. 

Among  other  ingredients  used,  presumptively,  for 
the  preservation  of  milk  are  lime,  borax,  boracic  acid 
and  salicylic  acid.  Some  of  these  are  even  now  used 
extensively  and  have  been  for  many  years,  for  in- 
stance, by  the  farmers  of  the  North  Sea  coast,  because 
for  them  it  was  a  matter  of  existence  to  keep  their 
milk  sweet  for  at  least  thirty  hours  to  enable  it  to 
reach  their  only  remunerative  market  which,  to  the 
greater  number,  was  London. 

Investigations  on  the  preserving  merits  of  boracic 
acid,  common  salt  and  salicylic  acid  show  the  follow- 
ing results  : 

Admixture. 


Commencement 
of  Curdling. 

0.02  per  cent,  boracic  acid after    30  hours.  .  . 


Commencement  of  Acidity 
Confirmed  by  Tasting. 


0.04 

0.00 
0.02 
0.04 
0.06 
0.02 
0.04 

0.06 
Pure  mi 

i  < 

salt 

<  < 

salicylic  acid  
Ik.. 

35 
56 
26 
26 
26 
33 
47 

144 
25 


•  • 

CLJL  I 

\~±    -r  i       u^ 

47 
60 
30 

J  14  i  i3 

'•'•'] 

wa 
ed 
.aft 

58 
82 
s  not  ct 
after  8  ( 
er28  h 

rdl- 
lays 
surs 

40 

Judging  from  the  above,  table  salt  can  hardly  be 
called  preserving,  while  boracic  acid  is  considerably 
so,  and  salicylic  acid  even  more  so.  With  the  latter 
it  is  quite  noticeable  that  it  prevents  the  curdling  for 
an  extremely  long  period. 

In  regard  to  the  difference  of  taste  produced  by 
these  preservatives,  the  admixture  of  boracic  acid  and 
of  common  salt  are  hardly  to  be  detected,  but  that  of 
salicylic  acid  very  plainly,  as  it  gives  milk  a  sweetish 
taste.  The  preserving  effects  of  these  admixtures 
was  found  lessened  in  proportion  to  the  time  which 
elapsed  between  milking  and  that  of  adding  the  chem- 
icals, a  natural  conclusion  when  we  remember  how 
rapidly  the  germs  multiply. 

A  sample  of  a  "  trebly  concentrated  preserving 
salt,"  manufactured  at  Stuttgart,  Germany,  was  ascer- 
tained to  be  composed  of  salt  and  boracic  acid,  and  an 
admixture  of  it  in  the  strength  of  O.OOS  per  cent, 
added  to  milk  had  a  preserving  effect  of  '24  hours. 
So.rJiIct  also  investigated  the  preserving  qualities  of 
boracic  acid  and  found  that  curdling  was  protracted 
for: 

:>•">  hours  by  an  admixture  of  0.1  per  cent. 
r>5       u          u  "  0.1  T> 

147        "          u  u  0.2          " 

2:>1        "          "  "  0.4          " 

Temperature,  as  well,  has  a  most  important  influence, 
and  milk  with  an  admixture  of  boracic  acid 
(1  gramme  to  1  liter)  was  kept  from  curdling  for  />() 


Preserving  Milk  b\  Chemicals.  41 

hours,  if  kept  at  a  temperature  of  (>0°  F.  or  below, 
and  that  even  half  of  this  quantity  of  the  chemical 
was  able,  at  the  same  temperature,  to  preserve  milk 
for  21  hours  longer.  But  the  value  of  a  preserving 
chemical  must  not  only  consist  in  protracting-  the 
curdling  of  raw  milk,  but  also  in  preserving  it  in  such 
a  manner  that  it  will  not  curdle  when  being  boiled. 
The  curdling  at  the  time  of  boiling  could  be  pro- 
tracted for  : 

10  hours,  by  an  addition  of  0.05  per  cl.  boracic  acid, 
oo  "  "  u  0.01  u  u 

Yet  we  should  never  lose  out  of  sight  the  prime 
requisite  to  be  demanded  from  all  milk  and,  therefore, 
also  from  preserved  milk  :  it  should  be  absolutely 
healthy,  and  this  cannot  be  upheld,  even  in  the  face 
of  statements  made  by  eminent  scientists  who  teach 
the  contrary  and  who  claim  that  these  perservatives 
are  harmless  or  have  no  deleterious  influence  whatso- 
ever. When  we  reflect  for  a  moment  that  the  public 
buys  our  milk  u  bona  fide,^  intending  to  use  a 
great  part  of  it  for  the  nourishment  of  infants  whose 
tender  stomach  we  may  compare  to  a  highly  tuned 
and  sensitive  instrument,  whose  cords  connect  it,  as 
it  were,  with  the  entire  nervous  system,  the  brain,  the 
heart,  in  fact  with  the  aggregate  vitality,  that  for  these 
infants  even  the  purest  cows'  milk  is  an  absolutely  unfit 
diet,  we  should  find  no  hesitation  in  arriving  at  the 
conclusion  that  every  tampering  with  the  milk  in  the 
hands  of  the  farmer  or  the  dairyman,  by  the  use  of 


42  A  New  Dairy  Industry. 

chemical  admixtures,  is  little  short  of  criminal.  For- 
merly great  efforts  were  made  to  establish  the  hann- 
lessness  of  boracic  acid,  but  more  recently  it  has  been 
repeatedly  proven  that  it  has  a  deleterious  influence 
on  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  intestines,  even  if 
administered  in  doses  such  as  we  have  seen  are  neces- 
sary to  be  added  to  milk  ;  this  acid  has  been  used  not 
only  in  milk,  but  in  a  large  variety  of  foodstuffs  and 
fluids.  Consumers  would  after  some  time  be  troubled 
with  salivation,  increased  urination,  diarrhea,  loss  of 
weight  and  on  several  occasions  in  aged  persons- 
death  insued. 

From  Norway  and  Sweeden,  where  the  use  of 
boracic  acid  seems  to  be  quite  prevalent,  more  so  at 
least  than  anywhere  else,  repeated  cases  of  poisoning 
by  the  comsumption  of  such  c'  preserved  "  milk  have 
been  reported.  In  other  countries  the  use  of  this 
acid  as  a  preserving  chemical  has  been  entirely  con- 
demned. Also  in  regard  to  salicylic  acid  it  has  been 
established  that,  even  in  the  minutest  doses,  its  con- 
tinued use  is  harmful  to  the  entire  human  organism, 
more  especially  to  the  nervous  system,  and  the 
French  sanitary  authorities  are  wageing  a  lively  war 
against  its  use  as  a  preserving  chemical  in  the  manu- 
facture of  canned  and  bottled  foodstuffs.  Kqtuilly 
obnoxious  is  the  admixture  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  to 
sour  milk,  because  it  has  a  laxative  effect  and  should 
certainly  not  be  tolerated  ;  the  same  may  be  said  of 
benzoate  potash,  hydrogen  peroxide  and  ozone  ;  even 
if  inoffensive  in  a  pure  state  the  trouble  here  remains 


'Preserving  Milk  by   Chemicals.  4o 

in  the  fact  that  they  seldom  can  be  procured  in  that 
state. 

The  final  conclusion  regarding  the  use  of  all  these 
chemicals  is  that  milk  may  be  preserved  for  several 
hours  by  using  them,  but  we  also  see  that  the  pre- 
serving action  of  these  salts  is  not  considerable,  so 
that  not  much  is  gained.  For  this  reason  their  use 
has  not  become  extensive,  particularly  in  cases  where 
milk  was  to  be  preserved  for  several  clays.  AS  a 
whole,  their  use  has  up  to  date,  been  limited  to  the 
small  milk  trade,  and  all  efforts  to  generalize  their 
adoption  which  are  at  present  made,  or  may  be  made 
in  the  future,  should  find  a  timely  end  by  the  promul- 
gation, among  farmers  and  dairymen,  of  more  efficient 
and  harmless  ways  of  preserving  their  milk  ;  by  the 
instruction  of  the  consuming  public  as  to  the  dangers 
of  polluted  milk,  and  by  the  enaction  and  enforcement 
of  laws  and  ordinances,  in  all  States  and  communities, 
which  shall  tend  to  protect  the  entire  population 
placed  under  their  care  from  injuries  through  milk 
polluted  by  chemical  admixtures,  and  therewith  pre- 
vent the  lives  of  millions  of  infants  being  left  at  the 
mercy  of  unscrupulous  greed. 

By  far  more  recommendable  than  the  chemical  sub- 
stances are  those  expedients  which  strive  to  impede 
action  and  multiplication  of  bacteria  through  influ- 
ences of  temperature,  and  which  have  been  known 
ever  since  the  most  ancient  times  viz.:  the  cooling 
and  the  heating  of  milk. 


CHAPTER  V. 
preservation  b£  Cooling, 

From  the  experiments  previously  noted,  it  will  have 
become  clear  what  influence  temperature  has  on  the 
propagation  of  bacteria,  and  this  influence  is  so  much 
stronger  inasmuch  as  the  temperature  can  be  lowered, 
and,  naturally,  it  was  not  long  before  attempts  were 
made  to  ascertain  the  keeping  qualities  vl  frozen  milk. 
In  some  cases  this  expedient  is  resorted  to  where  milk 
is  to  be  preserved  for  long  journeys.  A  part  of  the 
milk  supply  of  Paris,  France,  is  brought  to  town  in 
this  form,  frozen  by  machinery  in  vessels  with  elastic 
sides  and  then  thawed  out  before  consumption.  It  is 
reported  that  this  milk  does  not  differ  either  in  ap- 
pearance or  in  taste  from  fresh  milk,  and  that  it  can 
be  worked  into  the  products  of  milk  with  good  results. 
Also  on  board  of  some  of  the  trans-Atlantic  steam- 
ships frozen  milk  has  been  shipped  for  use  for  years. 
This  milk  is  first  treated  in  a  refrigerator,  and  then 
frozen.  The  freezing  of  milk,  however,  has  one  seri- 
ous disadvantage,  which  consists  in  the  disintegration 
of  milk  during  the  freezing  process,  which,  notwith- 
standing the  previous  refrigerating,  consumes  several 
hours  of  time,  and,  consequently,  the  cream  separates. 

This  frozen  block  consists  of  skim  milk,  on  which 


Preservation   by   Cooling.  45 

there  is  a  layer  of  cream,  while  in  the  middle  of  the 
block  a  funnel  shaped  cavity  is  formed,  which  con- 
tains unfrozen,  bnt  very  concentrated  milk. 

Vieth,  of  London,  has  experimented  with  such  frozen 
milk,  and  found  the  quantity  of  cream  S.8  per  cent.  ; 
the  skim  milk  64.7  per  cent.,  and  the  fluid  or  unfrozen 
part  was  26.5  per  cent.  The  chemical  analysis  gave 
the  following  results : 

Ice  or  Frozen  Part.      Unfrozen  or 
Cream.         Skim  Milk.     Fluid  Part. 

Specific  weight.    .    .    .     1.0100         1.0275         1.0525 

Water 74.44  92.10  80.54 

Fat 10.23  0.68  5.17 

Albumen 2.64  2.80  5.38 

Milk  sugar 3.38  3.95  7.77 

Ashes 0.52  0.60  1.18 

We  remark  that  while  the  disintegrating  action 
separates  the  fat  and  allows  it  to  freeze  by  itself,  the 
other  constituents — ashes,  milk  sugar  and  albumi- 
noids— remain  in  about  equal  proportion  to  one 
another.  But  it  is  this  very  circumstance,  the  sepa- 
rate freezing  of  the  milk  fat,  which  is  disagreeably 
conspicuous  in  frozen  milk,  because  the  cream  does 
not  again  mix  so  completely  after  having  been  thawed 
out,  consequently  the  milk  does  not  present  the  homo- 
genous fluid  that  there  was  before  it  was  frozen. 

The  analysis  of  H.  D.  Richmond  found  the  frozen 
part  to  contain  96.23  per  cent,  of  water  and  but  1.23 
per  cent  of  fat. 

If  circumstances  do  exist  under  which  frozen  milk 


4(>  A  New  Dairv  Industry. 

may  be  looked  upon  as  a  desirable  commodity,  or 
which  hold  out  a  prospect  of  widening  the  circle  in 
which  fresh  milk  may  be  utilized,  they  imist,  how- 
ever, not  be  looked  for  in  connection  with  the  manu- 
facture of  infants'  food,  because  it  is  not  merely  the 
above  mentioned  disadvantage  of  separating  the 
cream,  but  in  frozen  milk  the  bacteria  are  yet  alive, 
though  dormant,  and  ready  to  resume  their  work  of 


1 


ARCTIC  COOLER. 

destruction  as  soon  as  they  are  again  brought  into 
congenial  temperature.  We  must  ever  bear  in  mind 
that  in  the  manufacture  of  milk  for  infants  the  keep- 
ing qualities  are  of  value  only  when  accompanied  by 
absolute  freedom  from  infecting  germs  of  all  kinds, 
and  that  the  process  of  freezing  is  merely  a  mechani- 
cal means  of  stopping  the  activity  of  bacteria  and  in 


Preservation    by   Cooling.  47 

no  way  able  to  correct  any  physical  defect  the  milk 
may  have  posessed  before  the  freezing.  For  these 
reasons  the  call  for  frozen  milk  has  ever  remained  a 
limited  one,  while  the  process  of  merely  cooling  milk 
is  one  of  the  utmost  importance,  as  we  shall  later  see. 


CHAPTER   VI. 
preservation  of  /llMlfe  b£  tbeating. 

We  may  suppose  that  the  custom  of  preserving 
milk  by  heating  is  as  old  as  the  cow  and  the  use  of 
the  fire.  The  simplest  way  to  accomplish  it  is  the 
one  in  practice  in  all  households  over  the  whole 
world  wherever  fresh  milk  is  to  be  had  :  the  boiling 
of  it  in  an  open  vessel,  and  its  subsequent  cooling. 
Milk-boiling  pots  have  been  introduced  to  avoid  the 
boiling  over  and  the  consequent  disagreeable  smell 
and  loss  of  milk,  but  we  can  not  go  into  a  discussion 
of  their  merits  and  failings.  The  necessity,  or  the 
wish  to  preserve  milk  is,  however,  not  only  a  desider- 
atum for  households  but  by  far  more  urgent  for  dairies, 
more  particularly  for  such  dairies  that  return  the 
skim  milk  to  the  patrons,  but  also  for  dairies  t!:at 
have  milk  routes  in  cities  and  for  ll:?  whole  r.iilk 
trade  in  general. 

It  is  well  known  to  all  who  are  in  any  manner 
connected  with  or  interested  in  the  milk  trade,  how 
difficult  and  dainty  an  article  milk  is,  on  account  of 
its  easy  decomposition,  in  all  cases  where  it  has  to  be 
brought  to  town  from  great  distances  and  from  locali- 
ties that  could  not  command  the  use  of  refrigerating 
appliances  during  the  transit.  One  of  the  first  steps 
taken  towards  attaining  greater  security  was*  simply 


Preservation  by  Heating.  49 

the  boiling  of  the  milk  in  large  kettles,  imitating  the 
process  of  the  households.  In  this  way  one  could 
well  obtain  a  longer  keeping  quality  of"  the  milk  of 
from  12  to  24  hours,  but  there  \vas  the  disadvantage 
to  be  contended  with  that  the  boiled  taste  is  not  liked 
and  damages  the  sale,  although  it  is  uniformly  the 
custom  to  at  once  boil  the  milk  when  bought.  This 
is  quite  a  peculiar  difficulty  encountered  everywhere, 
which  is,  perhaps,  accounted  for  by  the  distrust  felt 
towards  boiled  milk  and  the  preference  given  to  the 
raw  article  and,  perhaps,  not  without  good  cause  ;  on 
the  other  hand  it  is  positively  a  fact  that  by  a 
majority  of  consumers  the  taste  of  boiled  milk  is  not 
liked,  and  it  may  readily  be  conceded  that  the  specific 
agreeable  taste  of  unboiled  milk  is  everywhere  pre- 
ferred to  the  former.  Besides,  it  was  found  that  in 
following  the  way  just  mentioned  of  boiling  the  milk, 
the  addition  to  its  keeping  qualities,  was  entirely 
too  short  to  be  of  any  considerable  benefit  even  for 
the  closer  markets,  ariid  that  not  much  could,  be 
gained  unless  the  milk  could  by  boiling  be  preserved 
at  least  for  a  couple  of  days,  or,  if  possible,  to  give  it 
an  undefinite  durability.  Trials  in  this  direction 
seem  to  have  been  instituted  soon  after  science  had 
instructed  us  as  to  the  real  causes  of  decomposition  of 
foodstuffs,  and  pointed  out  the  path  in  which  a  remedy 
might  be  looked  for.  The  pioneers  in  this  line  of 
work  seem  to  have  been  Pasteur  and  Appert,  although 
their  investigations  did  not  lead  to  a  single  success,  if 
we  may  judge  from  the  very  transient  notoriety  which 


50  A  New  Dairy  Industry. 

their  u  preserved  milk,"  as  it  was  called  for  some  time, 
acquired. 

The  next  great  success  in  this  work  was  to  fall  to 
America,  by  Gail  Borden's  invention  of  condensed 
milk,  whose  innumerable  disappointments,  however, 
may  well  be  taken  as  a  measure  of  the  difficulties  to 
be  encountered  by  every  advancement  connected  with 
the  preservation  of  this,  the  most  necessary  of  staple 
foods  of  humanity.  And  it  is,  perhaps,  as  well  that 
it  should  be  so.  Condensed  milk,  as  it  is  manufac- 
tured to-day,  with  and  without  the  addition  of  sugar, 
is  come  to  stay  among  us  because  it  has  the  great  ad- 
vantage of  being  reduced  in  bulk,  of  reducing  the 
cost  of  packing,  and  is  a  great  saving  in  freight  for  a 
comparatively  large  quantity  of  milk  ;  besides,  it  can 
be  kept  in  excellent  condition  for  a  very  long  time. 
The  change  in  taste  has,  naturally,  not  been  avoidable 
because  even  the  milk  condensed,  without  the  addi- 
tion of  sugar,  has  the  smell  and  taste  of  over-heated 
milk,  and  a  slight  reddish  hue. 

After  establishing  this  "  condensed  milk  "  a  num- 
ber of  other  more  or  less  "condensed"  milks  appeared 
in  -the  market,  but  with  little  success  as  infants'  milk  ; 
they  have  disappeared  (with  the  exception  of  one 
or  two  brands)  as  they  could  not  compete  \vith  the 
superior  uniformity  of  excellence  in  the  Borden  milk 
and  had  against  them  the  brownish  color  of  their  pro- 
duct. 

Condensed  milk  is  to-day  recognized  as  a  boon  and 
a  blessing  the  world  over,  its  production  and  manu- 


Preservation  b\  Heating.  51 

facture  although  highly  interesting  is,  however,  an 
industry  by  itself,  a  description  of  which  we  cannot 
here  enter  into. 

There  had,  in  the  course  of  time,  been  a  distinct 
parting  on  the  roads  pursued  by  experiments  and  in- 
vestigations both  purporting  to  lead  to  the  best  method 
of  preserving  milk  by  heatjng.  Some  advocated  a 
short  heating  at  temperatures  under  "212°  F.,  others 
operated  at  temperatures  over  212°.  In  course  of 
time  the  first  method  was  called  "  Pasteurization,"  in 
honor  to  the  French  scientist  Pasteur,  because  this 
celebrated  investigator  had  first  adopted  the  heating  of 
fluids,  particularly  of  wine  and  beer,  to  140°  F.  as  a 
means  for  their  preservation.  The  other  method,  that 
of  applying  higher  temperatures,  was  named  Steriliza- 
tion, because  the  milk  was,  apparently,  made  sterile, 
that  is  to  say:  the  milk  was  freed  from  the  micro-or- 
ganisms it  contained,  by  which  process  alone  it  is 
possible  to  attain  an  unlimited  keeping  quality  for  the 
milk. 


CHAPTER    VII. 
pasteurisation. 

In  some  dairies,  as  we  have  seen  before,  the  habit 
of  pasteurizing  in  common  open  kettles  had  been  in 
nse.  The  next  step  was.  the  heating  of  the  milk  in 
tightly  closed  kettles,  when  an  enormous  improve- 
ment was  at  once  recorded.  The  clumsiness  of  the 
first  apparatus  and  the  desire  to  combine  the  milk- 
heater  with  the  action  of  the  cream  separator  were 
the  cause  of  a  large  number  of  inventions  of  different 
apparatus  which  may  now  be  found  in  a  large  num- 
ber of  dairies.  The  first  of  these  apparatus  dates 
back  to  1882,  when  it  was  patented  by  Albert  Fesca, 
who  termed  it  "  a  continuously  working  apparatus  for 
the  preservation  of  milk  by  heat."  It  would  be  use- 
less to  attempt  to  describe  all  these  different  inven- 
tions, many  of  which  were  used  for  a  very  short  time, 
and  it  will  suffice  to  give  the  principle  on  which  it 
was  claimed  they  performed  the  preservation  of  milk. 

An  upright  cylinder  of  galvanized  copper,  and  sur- 
rounded by  a  closely  fitting  steam-jacket,  contained  a 
stirring  arrangement  by  which  the  milk,  that  entered 
from  below  and  was  forced  out  through  the  top,  was 
kept  continuously  moving  so  as  to  avoid  its  scorching 
at  the  sides  close  to  the  steam-jacket.  All  these  ap- 
paratus, however,  had,  and  have  yet,  some  defects  in 


Pasteurisation.  53 

common  :  one  is  the  aforesaid  burning  or  scorching  of 
the  milk,  and  another  the  great  insecurity  of  attaining 
the  desired  degree  of  heating  for  all  the  milk  passed 
through  the  apparatus.  As  the  injection  of  the  milk 
was  continuous  it  was  unavoidable  that  some  part  of  the 
milk  would  at  times  rise  and  find  the  exit  without 
having  attained  the  prescribed  degree  of  heat.  As 
we  may  suppose  all  such  milk  heated  to  1(5.")°  or  170° 
acquired  the  taste  of  boiled  milk,  a  defect  which,  it  is 
safe  to  say,  has  hardly  a  chance  to  be  overcome.  The 
great  heat  that  has  to  be  kept  up  on  the  metal  sides 
of  the  copper  cylinder  containing  the  milk  is  one  of 
the  great  defects  of  all  of  our  present  pasteurizing 
machines,  and  it  is  certain  that  this  must  be  remedied 
before  pasteurization  will  become  an  operation  of  uni- 
versal practice.  After  what  has  now  been  said  there 
would  be  justice  in  contending  that  the  present  pas- 
teurizing apparatus  will  be  even  less  successful  if 
temperatures  of  not  more  than  17()°  F.  can  be  applied. 
This  will  hold  good  only  for  the  present  apparatus  - 
in  other  words,  all  these  apparatus  have  a  defect,  and 
a  signal  defect  at  that,  which  involves  the  scorching 
before  mentioned.  This  great  defect  is  that  the  milk 
is  heated  for  too  short  a  time  and  that  it  remains 
inside  of  the  apparatus  for  too  limited  a  duration, 
consequently  necessitating  a  comparatively  excessive 
heating  at  the  sides  of  the  milk  to  attain  an  enhanced 
keeping  quality. 

From  this  reflection  and  from  the  observation  that 
the  u  boiled  "  taste  of  milk   is  already   noticeable   at 


54  A  Neiv  Dairy  Industry. 

temperatures  of  165°  to  170°  P.,  it  must  be  con- 
cluded that  the  application  of  a  temperature  under 
170°,  but  during  a  more  protracted  period,  must  be 
the  right  thing,  and  experiments  accordingly  made 
have  confirmed  this  conclusion. 

We  know  that  all  changes  which  take  place  in 
milk  must  be  traced  to  the  presence  and  activity  of 
spores,  ferments,  etc.  We  must  conclude  herefrom 
that  the  keeping  quality  of  milk  is  dependent  upon  the 
quantity  of  such  germs  contained  therein,  and  that 
also  the  success  of  pasteurization  must  depend  on  the 
efficiency  with  which  it  has  killed  the  majority  of 
germs  or  not.  If  we,  therefore,  wish  to  study  the  ef- 
fect of  heating  on  the  durability  of  milk,  we  have  to 
study  the  effect  which  heating  produces  on  the  milk 
fungi,  and  such  experiments  have  to  be  carried  on  by 
purely  bacteriological  methods,  which  in  their  sim- 
pler forms  we  shall  have  to  adopt  when  testing  milk 
to  be  prepared  for  infants'  food  ;  a  closer  description 
of  the  apparatus  used  will  be  brought  in  the  chapter 
treating  of  the  manufacture  of  artificial  mothers' 
milk. 

The  defects  attached  to  pasteurizing  apparatus 
liave  been  clearly  demonstrated  by  a  large  number 
of  experiments.  It  has  been  proven  that  certain  bac- 
teria which  had  been  introduced  into  the  milk,  for 
instance,  bacteria  of  tuberculosis,  can  be  killed  at  a 
temperature  of  154°  to  155°  if  they  are  only  exposed 
to  this  temperature  for  about  thirty-five  minutes. 
From  this  it  was.  correctlv  concluded  that  other  bac- 


Pasteurisation.  55 

teria,  more  especially  those  commonly  contained  in 
milk,  conld  be  killed  at  a  temperature  as  low  as  176° 
or -even  167°,  if  only  they  conld  be  kept  in  this  tem- 
perature for  a  sufficiently  protracted  period.  This 
conclusion  having  been  reached  and  confirmed,  it 
was  at  once  plain  that  the  apparatus  to  be  used  would 
have  to  abandon  the  aim  of  continuous  operation  and 
adopt  the  principle  of  periodic  filling  and  emptying. 
In  his  exhaustive  researches  in  this  direction,  Bitter 
reached  most  conclusive  results.  Beginning  again 
with  milk  to  which  bacteria  of  tuberculosis  were 
added,  he  heated  this  in  an  apparatus  of  his  own  in- 
vention to  154°  F.  for  fifteen,  twenty  and  thirty  min- 
utes respectively,  in  separate  lots.  Corroborating  not 
only  the  result  of  his  previous  experiments  in  the 
laboratory,  which  had  shown  that  thirty  minutes 
were  sufficient  to  kill  these  bacteria  exposed  to  154°, 
it  was  found  that  even  half  of  this  period,  fifteen  min- 
utes, sufficed  to  attain  the  same  result.  After  this 
the  experiments  were  extended  to  examine  the  effects 
of  pasteurizing  on  the  ordinary  bacteria  of  milk 
under  varying  degrees  of  heat  and  varying  periods  of 
-exposure  to  such  heat. 

It  was  of  the  greatest  importance  to  attain  a  stand- 
ard of  comparison,  not  only  for  the  preservation  of 
the  milk,  but  also  as  to  its  fitness  for  consumption. 
The  investigations  were,  therefore,  extended  to  the  ap- 
pearance, smell  and  taste  of  the  milk  treated,  and  to 
detect  every  change  in  these  properties  on  which  the 
value  of  milk  as  an  article  of  consumption  so  largely 


<r>()  A  New  Dairy  Industry. 

depends.  It  was  equally  of  importance  to  establish 
a  method  to  enable  an  examination  of  the  keeping 
qualities  of  milk  which  would  manifest  the  spoilt 
character  of  the  milk  even  before  this  should  be  ex- 
ternally visible. 

Commonly,  the  keeping  quality  of  milk  is  judged 
by. the  earlier  or  more  protracted  appearance  of  curdl- 
ing. But  milk  is  really  spoilt  before  this  occurs,  as 
the  requisites  for  curdling  are  all  present,  so  that  it 
needs  only  a  slight  warming  to  effect  the  separation. 
The  curdling  of  milk  is,  however,  generally  the  con- 
sequence of  its  acidity,  and  one  would  believe  that 
the  reaction  of  the  milk  should  furnish  a  measure  for 
the  expected  appearance  of  curdling.  In  the  case  of 
raw  milk  this  measure  could,  perhaps,  be  adopted, 
and,  in  fact,  experiments  have  recently  been  made  to 
determine  what  must  be  the  degree  of  acidity  to  make 
milk  curdle  at  warming ;  this  will  be  described  later 
on.  The  method,  even  if  reliable  results  are  to  be 
obtained  by  it,  is  one  of  complicated  manipulations 
suited  only  to  laboratory  work,  and  has  for  this  reason 
not  received  the  attention  and  application  it  merits  as 
a  means  to  examine  milk  brought  to  market,  which 
in  itself  is  a  most  desirable  investigation.  When  it, 
however,  comes  to  the  manufacture  of  milk  into  food 
for  infants  we  can  not  operate  with  any  such  uncer- 
tain factors,  therefore  the  degree  of  acidity  in  the 
milk  to  be  used  for  this  purpose  must  needs  be  ascer- 
tained by  the  manufacturer  ;  there  must  be,  absolutely, 


Pasteurization.  57 

no  item  in  the  entire  process  left  to  haphazard  or  to 
chance. 

We  have  previously  seen  that,  besides  the  acidity, 
there  are  other  causes  for  the  curdling  of  milk,  that 
the  latter  may  even  cnrdle  without  being  at  all  sour, 
and  that  there  exists  a  large  number  of  bacteria 
which  possess  the  property  of  separating  a  rennet- 
like  ferment  and  which,  consequently,  if  they  be  pre- 
sent in  sufficient  numbers,  are  able  to  make  milk 
curdle.  Milk  in  which  such  bacteria  predominate 
will  curdle  very  easily  at  warming  without  any  ab- 
normal degree  of  acidity  having  previously  been 
observed.  The  reaction  of  milk  is,  therefore,  not 
always  an  unerring  sign  of  probable  curdling  when 
warmed,  but  the  warming,  itself,  rather  constitutes 
the  surest  experiment  towards  the  examination  of 
milk  in  this  direction,  more  particularly  of  such  milk 
which  is  produced  under  conditions  entirely  remote 
from  our  observation.  This  is  also  true  of  pasteur- 
ized milk.  All  bacteriological  investigations  of 
pasteurized  and  sterilized  milk  have  shown  that 
it  is  more  especially  the  °roup  of  rennet — or  butter 
acid  bacteria — which  in  their  endurate  form  of  spores 
resist  the  influence  of  heating  better  than  other  bac- 
teria. For  this  reason  well  pasteurized  milk  contains, 
when  it  becomes  older,  principally  these,  bacteria,  and 
it  may  curdle  in  the  course  of  time  without  percept- 
ably  increasing  in  acidity. 

The  keeping  quality  of  pasteurized  milk  can,  there- 
fore, not  be  examined   by  the  chemical  reaction,  but 


58  A  New  Dairy  Industry. 

rather  by  the  direct  experiment  of  curdling  :  it  must 
stand  warming  without  curdling,  because  on  this  the 
whole  value  of  the  milk,  not  only  for  the  household 
but  also  for  the  manufacture  into  its  products,  is 
dependant.  It  has  been  established  that  milk  heated 
to  154°  and  kept  there  for  thirty-five  minutes  retains 
but  very  few  bacteria,  that  the  pasteurization  was  as 
complete  as  can  be  attained  by  any  heating  under 
212°  F.  The  length  of  time  which  such  pasteurized 
milk  keeps  wras  found  to  be  from  six  to  eight  hours 
longer  than  non-pasteurized  milk  of  the  same  date 
and -both  kept  at  a  temperature  of  80°,  at  least  ten 
hours  longer  at  77°  and  from  fifty  to  sixty  hours 
longer  if  kept  at  65°  F.  This  enhanced  keeping 
quality  may  also  be  regarded  as  constant  and  not 
varying.  The  time  of  heating,  namely,  thirty-five 
minutes,  had  been  retained  because  this  had  been 
found  sufficient  to  kill  the  bacteria  of  tuberculosis,, 
frequent  extraction  of  samples  during  the  process  had 
shown  that  already  after  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes 
none  had  remained  alive,  so  that  a  duration  of  heat- 
ing for  thirty  minutes,  consecutively,  at  155°  can  be 
pronounced,  under  all  circumstances,  as  a  thorough 
pasteurization.  Further  experiments,  with  a  higher 
temperature,  were  made  with  skim  milk,  when  it  was 
found  that  107°  kept  up  for  fifteen  minutes  was  en- 
tirely sufficient. 

Here  the  taste  of  the  milk  was  hardly  altered, 
although  the  temperature  was  nearly  up  to  where  albu- 
men coagulates,  and  therefore  a  change  in  taste  could 


Pasteurisation,  59 

be  expected.  It  was,  therefore,  surmised  that  full  milk 
would  stand  heating  to  107°  equally  well  without  ac- 
quiring the  boiled  taste,  and  experiments  have  con- 
firmed this  supposition.  The  keeping  quality  of  a: 
milk  pasteurized  at  167°  was  enhanced  by  twenty- 
four  to  twenty-eight  hours  if  the  storing  temperature 
wras  73°,  and  sixty  hours  if  the  temperature  of  stor- 
age was  GO0,  and  was  also  enhanced  in  the  same 
measure  as  by  a  pasteurization  at  155°  lasting  thirty 
minutes. 

The  investigations  of  Prof.  H.  L.  Russell,  of  more 
recent  date,  have  thrown  a  great  deal  of  light  on  the 
effect  of  pasteurizing  on  the  different  species  of  bac- 
teria in  milk.  P^xcluding  from  consideration  those 
species  that  have  occurred  only  sporadically  in  the 
cultures  of  bacteria,  fifteen  different  forms  in  all  have 
been  isolated  from  normal  milk  and  cream.  Of  this 
number,  six  different  forms  have  predominated  in  a 
large  degree.  When  classified  as  to  their  effect  on 
milk  they  are  grouped  as  follo\vs  : 

Species  producing  lactic  acid 3 

Species  causing  no  apparent  change  in  milk: 7 

Species  coagulating  milk  by  the  production  of  rennet  and 

subsequently  digesting  the  curdled  casein 5 

Iii  the  same  milk,  after  pasteurizing,  only  six 
species  were  isolated.  Of  these,  three  had  no  ap- 
parent action  on  milk,  while  the  remaining  three 
species  curdled  the  milk  by  the  formation  of  rennet 
and  then  subsequently  digested  the  same  by  the  ac- 


60  A  New  Dairy  Industry. 

tion  of  a  tryptic  enzyme.  The  lactic  acid  producing 
species  that  make  np  the  majority  of  individual 
germs  in  the  raw  material  were  entirely  destroyed  by 
the  pasteurizing  process.  This  class,  as  a  rule,  does 
not  form  enclospores,  consequently  they  are  unable  to 
resist  the  heat  employed  in  pasteurizing. 

In  the  normal  milk  it  is  to  be  noted  that  while  the 
majority  of  individual  germs  belong  to  the  lactic 
acid  producing  class,  yet  a  larger  number  of  species 
producing  little  or  no  acid  are  to  be  found  in  milk. 
These  are,  doubtless,  the  organisms  derived  from  ex- 
traneous sources.  The}'  are  germs  associated  with 
dirt  and  excreta,  and  gain  access  to  the  milk  during 
the  milking.  Baccillus  mesentericus  vulgatus,  the 
common  potato  baccillus,  was  frequently  isolated 
from  the  pasteurized  as  well  as  from  the  raw  milk. 
As  these  organisms  that  are  thus  associated  with  filth 
of  various  kinds  are  able  to  persist  in  pasteurized 
milk  by  virtue  of  their  spores,  it  emphasizes  the  well- 
known  lesson  that  scrupulous  cleanliness  is  an  abso- 
lute essential  in  dairies  that  pasteurize  their  milk  for 
direct  consumption.  Cleanliness  in  milking  dimin- 
ishes materially  the  amount  of  this  class  of  bacteria 
that  gains  access  to  the  milk.  The  lactic  acid  bac- 
teria, those  that  are  essentially  milk  bacteria  by  pre- 
diliction,  are  the  forms  that  are  habitually  present  in 
the  milk  duct.  These  are  the  bacteria  that  cannot 
well  be  kept  out  even  by  the  greatest  care.  They 
are,  however,  the  forms  that  succumb  most  easily  to 
the  pasteurizing  process. 


Pasteurisation.  61 

In  reviewing  these  results  it  may  seem  singular 
that  the  duration  of  keeping  qualities  of  pasteurized 
milk,  particularly  at  higher  temperatures,  is  not  very 
much  greater  than  that  of  non-pasteurized  milk,  so 
that  the  result  does  not  seem  to  be  very  encouraging. 
But  we  must  remember  that  milk  is  seldom  exposed 
to  such  a  temperature  as  7o°  in  the  longest  transits. 
Therefore,  if  properly  cooled  before  transportation 
and  the  most  common  precautionary  measures  are 
observed  (such  as  keeping  some  ice  near  the  cans  or 
using  refrigerator  cars)  results  will  generally  prove 
satisfactory.  It  will  be  readily  comprehended  that 
milk  will  keep  so  much  better  after  pasteurization 
the  more  rapidly  and  strongly  it  is  cooled  after  heat- 
ing. The  larger  the  transporting  vessels  are  the  more 
easily  will  the  temperature  be  kept  down. 

If  we  now  consider  all  conditions,  it  may  be  stated 
with  certainty  that  the  keeping  quality  of  properly 
pasteurized  milk  will  be  thirty  hours,  even  during  the 
hottest  summer  days,  and.  at  lower  temperatures, 
naturally  ever  so  much  longer.  A  matter  of  the 
highest  importance,  aside  from  the  enhanced  keeping 
quality,  is  that  in  such  milk  cream  will  rise  and  be- 
come butter  just  as  easily  and  the  butter  not  have  the 
slighest  trace  of  taste  to  distinguish  it  from  other 
butter  made  of  non-pasteurized  milk.  Pasteurizer 
and  cooler  should,  naturally,  be  mounted  in  a  manner 
to  avoid  as  much  as  possible  the  exposure  of  the  pas- 
teurized milk  to  the  air.  Pasteurizing  machines  find 
the  greatest  field  of  utility  in  creameries  where  skim 


62  A  New  Dairy  Industry. 

milk  is  returned  to  the  patrons,  and  as  they  are 
capable,  when  properly  managed,  to  disinfect  the 
skim  milk  at  a  trifling-  cost  from  the  pathogenic — or 
disease-producing  bacteria — that  is,  from  those  that 
are  apt  to  carry  and  spread  infections  diseases  such  as, 
for  instance,  those  of  tuberculosis,  typhus,  foot  and 
mouth  disease,  scarlet  fever,  etc.,  they  should  be  in 
general  use.  In  several  European  countries — Ger- 
many, for  instance— the  creameries  are  obliged  by  law 
to  make  use  of  them.  When  we  refer,  however,  to 
the  object  of  this  treatise  :  the  manufacture  of  milk 
into  a  healthy  food  for  infants,  it  must  be  said  that 
the  pasteurizing  machine  does  not  find  an  employ- 
ment in  this  process  because  a  higher  standard  of 
efficiency  must  be  aimed  at,  yet  it  seemed  advisable 
to  explain  the  effects  of  pasteurization  so  as  to  be 
able,  later  on,  to  define  the  difference  between  it  and 
sterilizing,  and  avoid  the  confusion  that  in  the 
minds  of  many  now  exists  with  reference  to  these 
processes. 


CHAPTER     VIII. 


Pasteurizing  does  not  kill  all  bacteria  as  we  have 
seen,  because  either  the  temperature  has  not  been 
high  enough,  or,  as  is  the  case  in  the  common  appar- 
atus with  continuous  working,  has  not  acted  long 
enough  on  the  milk,  partly  because  the  endurate 
forms  the  spores  of  certain  bacteria  can  well  endure 
temperatures  of  212°  F.,  particularly  if  these  are  not 
kept  up  for  a  longer  time. 

Investigations  have  shown  that  there  exist,  com- 
paratively, not  a  few  bacteria  that  are  able  to  with- 
stand high  temperatures  ;  Colui's  investigations  have 
proved  that  the  hay  bacillus  (bacillus  subtilis)  will  at 
a  temperature  of  120°  P.,  at  which,  ordinarily,  other 
organic  life  commences  to  die,  still  increase  rapidly, 
and  Miqucl  found  a  bacterium  in  water,  which  not 
only  endures  perfectly  a  temperature  of  158°,  but 
prospers  in  it  ;  for  which  reason  it  was  named 
"bacillus  termophilus."  Now,  if  bacteria  are  able  to 
resist,  even  in  their  vegetative  period,  the  part  of  their 
lives  in  which  they,  apart  from  a  great  display  of  activ- 
ity and  multiplication,  are  keenly  susceptible  to  out- 
ward influences,  to  such  high  temperatures  which  are 
commonly  considered  as  the  limit  of  organic  life,  or, 
if  they  ever  require  such  temperatures  to  deploy  their 


64  A  New  Dairy  Industry. 

ftill  vital  energies,  how  much  greater  must  then  be 
the  possibility  that  these  bacteria  will  in  another, 
their  endurate  form,  be  able  to  resist  such  higher 
temperatures  ?  We  know,  in  fact,  quite  a  number  of 
bacteria  whose  endurate  forms,  the  spores,  are  able 
to  endure  such  intensive  heat  as  would  at  once  kill 
all  other  organic  life.  The  baccillus  subtilis  has 
been  cooked  for  two  hours  and  a  half,  consecutively, 
at  212°  and  not  lost  its  power  to  germinate,  and  an- 
other investigator  found  that  this  ironclad  baccillus 
could  be  killed  only  at  240°  of  heat.  Globig  found 
a  baccillus  living  on  the  potato,  the  "  red  potato  bac- 
cillus," the  spores  of  which  could  be  pronounced  dead 
only  after  having  remained  in  steam  of  212°  for  six 
hours,  and  in  steam  under  pressure  at  235°  the  same 
spores  were  yet  alive  after  forty-five  minutes. 

It  will,  therefore,  easily  be  understood  that  in  a 
process  like  the  pasteurizing,  which  seldom  exceeds 
100°  to  175°,  there  very  frequently  remain  live  bac- 
teria and  spores  in  milk,  which  are  sure  to  spoil  it 
after  a  longer  or  shorter  time.  The  desire,  however, 
to  give  milk  keeping  qualities,  not  only  for  days  but 
for  weeks  and  months,  is  an  urgent  one,  and,  there- 
fore, all  efforts  have  been  concentrated  to  destroy  all 
bacteria  by  the  application  of  heat  above  212°,  and 
thereby  to  reach  the  desired  keeping  quality.  Re- 
viewing the  observations  hitherto  enumerated  of  the 
temperatures  at  which  the  spores  of  several  of  the 
more  resistant  kinds  of  bacteria  may  be  killed,  we 
see  that  milk  which  contains,  for  instance,  the  wide- 


Sterilising,  65 

spread  and  common  baccilhis  subtilis  would  have  to 
be  heated  for  a  considerable  time  to  240°  to  insure 
any  degree  of  security  of  its  having  been  killed. 

Pasteur  records  amongst  his  experiments  of  steriliz- 
ing milk  that  the  hay  baccillus  was  found  killed  only 
after  a  heating  of  several  hours'  duration  to  2of)c,  or 
after  heating  for  half  an  hour  to  206°  F.  To  such 
excessive  heat  we  cannot,  however,  expose  milk  with- 
out its  palatability  being  seriously  impaired,  so  that 
sterilizing  at  such  temperatures  is  practically  not  to  be 
thought  of.  We  note  that  in  the  beginning  all  these 
experiments  tended  merely  to  produce  a  keeping 
quality  in  the  milk,  and  only  in  the  course  of  time 
the  expediency  became  apparent  of  combining  with 
it  a  sanitary  amelioration  by  its  thorough  disinfection. 
We  shall  first  review  the  effects  of  sterilizing  from 
the  standpoint  of  longer  keeping  qualities,  and  turn 
thereafter  to  the  merits  attained  by  the  disinfection. 

Among  those  that  entered  the  occupation  of  building 
sterilizing  apparatus,  two  distinct  methods  were  very 
soon  adopted — the  one  heating  to  high  temperatures 
and  then  hermetically  sealing  the  vessels  containing 
the  milk,  the  other  advocating  a  repeated  heating  and 
intermediate  cooling  at  different  degrees  of  tempera- 
ture, which  is  termed  "  fractionized  sterilization." 
Tyndall  was  the  first  to  advocate  this  method,  and 
Dahl  adopted  it,  cooling  milk  first  to  5.~>°  and  then 
heating  it  to  1.~><S°  for  four  consecutive  times  and 
cooling  the  milk  to  104°  between  each  heating,  the 
separate  operation  consuming  one  hour  and  a  half 


CO  A  New  Dairy  Industry. 

each,  and  after  the  last  cooling  another  heating  for 
half  an  hour  to  212°  was  given,  and  then  finally 
cooled  to  60°.  This  method  was,  as  we  readily  com- 
prehend, far  too  tedious  to  be  extensively  adopted  or 
applied,  later  on  it  wras  modified  to  but  two  heatings 
at  158°  and  the  last  heating  to  212°,  so  that  only 
three  heatings  in  all  were  given.  But  -even  this  re- 
duction was  not  sufficient  to  bring  it  into  general  use, 
also  the  costs  of  the  repeated  manipulations  were  by 
far  too  heavy.  It  was  then  reduced  to  but  one  heat- 
at  104°,  a  subsequent  cooling,  and  then  a  final  heat- 
ing to  215°.  The  manner  of  putting  "this  method 
into  practical  operation  was  that  the  milk  was  filled 
into  glass  bottles  with  the  porcelain  stopper  and  wire 
closing  arrangement.  These  bottles  had  been  previ- 
ously sterilized  in  flowing  steam  of  212°  for  half  an 
hour.  The  rubber  rings  or  washers  used  with  these 
stoppers  were  boiled  in  water  and  soda  until  every 
particle  of  taste  or  smell  had  vanished  ;  the  rings 
were  now  drawn  over  the  porcelain  stopper  by 
scrupulously  clean  hands,  the  bottles  filled  by  a  bot- 
tling apparatus  and  placed  in  the  sterilizing  chest. 
This  chest  was  fitted  with  a  patent  arrangement  for 
closing  down  the  wire  fastening  without  opening  the 
steam  chest  (the  object  being  to  allow  the  air  in 
the  bottle  to  escape  during  the  boiling  of  the  milk) 
but  to  seal  the  bottles  hermetically  immediately  after. 
The  temperature  produced  in  the  sterilizer  by  the 
steam  is  descernable  on  a  thermometer,  which  is  fixed 
in  the  covering  or  hood  of  the  chest  with  the  quick- 


Sterilising.  67 

silver  bulb  inside  in  contact  with  the  steam.  In 
some  of  these  apparatus  an  electric  bell  has  been 
connected  with  the  thermometer  in  a  manner  to  close 
the  contact  and  ring  when  the  quicksilver  "has  risen 
to  the  prescribed  degrees  of  heat ;  but  as  the  heating 
has  to  be  done  very .  gradually,  or  a  large  number  of 
bottles  will  crack  and  burst,  the  operator's  hand  is  re- 
quired constantly  on  the  steam  valve  and  his  eye  on 
the  thermometer,  so  that  this  electrical  arrangement 
becomes  entirely  superfluous. 

The  inconvenience  of  losing  bottles  and  their  con- 
tents by  bursting  was  practically  overcome  by  the 
immersion  of  the  bottles  in  a  water  bath,  and  the 
success  of  this  simple  expedient  seemed  to  prove  a 
lasting  one  until  a  singular  defect  to  it  appeared, 
which  very  speedily  caused  the  abandonment  of  the 
water  sterilization  as  far  as  it  was  applied  in  the  pro- 
duction of  normal  infants'  milk.  It  was  found  that 
the  bottles  used  in  the  water  sterilization  began,  in 
the  course  of  time,  to  loose  their  brilliancy,  their  sur- 
face becoming  dull  and  gritty  by  the  action  of  minute 
particles  of  lime  which  were  deposited  by  the  boiling 
water,  and  which  defied  all  efforts  to  remove  them  by 
mechanical  or  by  chemical  means  of  cleansing.  Al- 
though this  dullness  of  the  glass  did  no  harm  to  the 
contents  of  the  bottles,  yet  it  was  found  impossible 
now  to  control  the  proper  cleansing  of  the  bottles, 
simply  because  they  retain  a  look  of  uncleanliness,  no 
matter  what  sum  of  exertion  has  been  expended  on 
their  cleansing. 


68  A  Ne^'  Dairy  Industry. 

In  sterilizing  by  steam  it  is  necessary  that  all  air 
be  driven  out  of  the  apparatus,  because  a  mixture  of 
air  and  steam  gives  very  unsatisfactory  results ;  the 
apparatus  should,  therefore,  be  fitted  with  an  escape 
pipe,  through  which  all  air  may  be  driven  out  and  a 
sufficient  amount  of  steam  may  also  continuously  es- 
cape during  the  entire  duration  of  sterilization,  so  as 
to  maintain  a  circulating  movement  of  the  steam  in- 
side of  the  apparatus ;  this  is  essential  to  equalize  the 
temperature  in  all  parts  of  the  apparatus,  for,  with- 
out such  movement  of  the  steam,  either  the  bottles 
nearest  to  the  entrance  of  the  steam  will  be  over- 
heated or  those  more  remote  not  attain  the  desired 
degrees  of  heat.  We  have  seen  that  a  thermometer 
is  attached  to  the  hood  of  the  apparatus  to  indicate 
the  heat  of  the  steam  as  it  fills  the  inside,  enabling 
the  operator  to  regulate  the  flow  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  secure  a  steady  rising  of  the  temperature  not  ex- 
ceeding f>°  F.  in  every  minute.  But  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  steam  in  the  apparatus  is  no  indication  of 
the  temperature  of  the  milk  in  the  bottles  to  be  steri- 
lized, and  to  know  which  is  of  the  greatest  import- 
ance. For  this  reason  it  is  necessary  to  fix  a  second 
thermometer  in  the  hood  of  the  apparatus,  exposing 
the  scale  of  degrees  outside,  whilst  the  quicksilver 
bulb  reaches  down  and  dips  into  the  milk  in  one  of 
the  bottles  inside.  This  bottle,  or  rather  a  bottle 
with  the  neck  trimmed  off,  so  as  to  offer  a  wider 
mouthed  opening  for  the  thermometer  bulb  to  dip 
into,  is  so  fixed  on  a  bracket  that  the  thermometer  de- 


Sterilising.  (>!) 

scending  with  the  hood  or  cover  will  exactly  dip  into 
this  milk  (see  Fig.  18),  and  consequently  the  read- 
ing 011  this  thermometer  \\ill  give  a  fair  indication 
of  the  degree  of  heat  attained  in  all  the  bottles. 
When  bottles  of  different  sizes  are  sterilized  simultan- 
eously, then  one  of  the  largest  sized  bottles  must  be 
used  to  hold  the  thermometer  bulb,  for  we  must  take 
account  of  the  prescribed  time  for  sterilizing  from 
the  time  the  largest  bottles  in  the  aparatus  have 
reached  the  desired  degree  of  heat. 

Whatever  time  may  have  been  fixed  upon  for  the 
various  periods  of  sterilization  or  combinations  of 
alternate  heating  and  cooling,  they  should,  however, 
be  closely  adhered  to,  as  every  variance  therefrom,  or 
negligence  in  this  respect,  will  at  once  tell  on  the 
keeping  qualities  of  the  milk. 

Let  us,  however,  bear  in  mind  that  all  attention 
and  neatness  during  the  process  of  sterilization  is 
wasted  and  futile,  if  the  milk  has  not  been  produced 
and  handled  with  the  utmost  cleanliness,  and  here, 
again,  we  may  observe  that  it  is  not  so  much  the 
bacteria  floating  in  the  air  that  have  to  be  feared  and 
guarded  against,  than  those  that  cling  to  matter  of 
every  description  :  vessels,  utensils,  hands,  etc.  The 
prime  object  to  be  attained,  after  having  applied  the 
proper  sterilizing,  is  the  hermetically  sealing  of  the 
milk  bottles  before  the  outer  air  can  come  into  re- 
newed contact  with  the  contents.  In  what  degree 
this  last  and  most  important  requisite  is  attained,  de- 
pends naturally  on  the  efficiency  of  the  closing  r.r- 


7<>  ~-l  JVVzr  Dciirv  Industry. 

rangement  of  the  bottles,  and  it  was  natural  that  very 
soon  a  large  number  of  patent  devices  sprang  into  ex 
istence,  some  absolutely  without  any  value,  others 
too  expensive  to  find  general  adoption,  and  it  may  be 
safely  averred  that  the  ideal  sealing  for  milk  bottles 
is  yet  a  thing  of  the  future.  The  porcelain  stopper 
and  wire  closing  arrangement,  has  grave  defects  ; 
those  that  have  the  wire  ends  fixed  in  holes  at  the 
side  of  the  neck  of  the  bottle  can  hardly  be  properly 
cleaned,  as  colonies  of  acid  bacteria  become  lodged 
in  these  holes  from  where  they  are  not  to  be  got  out. 
Many  do  not  close  hermetically,  the  tension  of  the 
wires  being  unequal,  stronger  on  one  side  than  on 
the  other  ;  no  acid  being  admissible  in  the  cleansing 
of  these  bottles  on  account  of  its  liability  to  corrode 
the  wire,  they  are  with  difficulty  kept  clean,  the 
whole  \viie  fixture  darkens  in  the  course  of  time,  be- 
comes rusty,  discolors  the  neck  of  the  bottles  and  im- 
parts to  them  a  filthy,  slovenly  appearance  ;  lastly, 
the  wire  and  stopper,  hanging  to  the  bottle,  are  much 
in  the  way  where  these  bottles  are  to  be  used  for 
feeding  the  contents  to  the  infant  direct  after  pulling 
on  a  feeding  nipple. 

The  greatest  defect,  however,  adhering  to  these 
bottles,  and  the  one  which  principally  makes  them 
unfit  to  be  utilized  in  the  manufacture  and  dispensing 
of  food  for  .infants,  is  that  neither  the  manufacturer 
nor  the  buying  public  are  able,  by  the  outward  ap- 
pearance of  the  bottle  or  fastening,  to  detect  if  the 
elfcct  has  -been  complete,  or  if  it  even  has 


Sterilising.  7 1 

been  so  at  the  time  of  closing  the  bottles,  if  it  is  so 
yet  at  the  time  of  sale  or  consumption.  A  bottle  of 
milk  with  the  wire  fastening  may  look  all  right  when 
it  comes  out  of  the  sterilizing  apparatus,  but  if  there 
has  existed  the  slightest  inequality  of  tension  in  the 
wires,  and  the  stopper  sits  one-sided,  or  with  the  pres- 
sure drawn  to  one  side  only,  then,  when  cooling  the 
reduction  in  the  volume  of  milk,  produces  a  suction 
strong  enough  to  draw  in  some  of  the  outer  air  into 
the  bottle,  and  with  this  air,  naturally,  germs  enter. 
As  a  consequence,  such  milk  is  no  longer  sterile,  but 
is  likely  to  turn  at  any  time  and  produce  results 
which,  while  they  may  prove  disastrous  to  the  con- 
sumer, are  sure  to  damage  the  reputation  of  the  man- 
ufacturing dairyman.  Several  cases  of  this  kind  re- 
curring in  a  neighborhood  are  amply  sufficient  to  ruin 
the  manufacturer  and  bring  discredit  on  the  article  it- 
self. Another  porcelain  stopper,  made  by  Timpe,  aban- 
doned the  wire  locking  and  trusted  to  the  atmospheric 
pressure  to  do  the  sealing ;  this  would  work  well  and 
neatly  as  long  as  the  top  of  the  bottle  was  ground  to 
a  perfectly  smooth  flange,  to  which  the  rubber  washer 
would  adjust  itself  snugly,  but  this  bottle  did  not  find 
extensive  application — firstly,  because  it  was  too  ex- 
pensive and,  secondly,  because  during  sterilization 
the  expanding  gasses  from  the  bottle  frequently  lift 
the  stopper  and  washer,  which  then  do  not  settle 
down  again  to  their  place,  so  that  such  bottles  have 
to  be  readjusted  and  go  through  the  sterilizing  pro- 
cess again. 


72  A  New  Dairy  Industry. 

It  should  be  understood  that  it  is  the  manufacturer's 
most  urgent  interest  to  offer  in  the  market  only  such 
bottles  that  will  plainly  show  by  an  outward  and  in- 
fallible sign  that  their  contents  are  in  perfect  condi- 
tion, and  this  sign  must  be  one  easily  recognized  so 
that  the  consuming  public  will  learn  to  look  for  the 
recognized  mark  when  buying  milk.  'Soxhlet  was 
fully  convinced  of  this  necessity,  and  constructed  an 
automatic  rubber  sealing,  which  works  well  enough 
when  used  only  on  the  small  sterilizing  apparatus 
constructed  for  family  use,  where  the  bottles,  after 
sterilizing,  can  be  handled  with  care,  but  in  produc- 
tion on  a  larger  scale  where  bottles  have  to  be  sent 
long  distances  and  be  exposed  to  shaking  in  cases  or 
boxes,  the  Soxhlet  rubber  seal  is  quite  unreliable  ; 
besides,  the  mouth  of  the  bottle  has  to  be  ground  into 
a  concave,  which  operation  raises  the  price  of  the 
bottle  to  a  figure  which  places  it  outside  of  considera- 
tion for  general  adoption.  Stutzcr  invented  another 
automatic  sealing  stopper,  which,  although  it  sits  firm 
and  works  well,  is  so  misshapen  as  to  be  most  difficult 
to  clean,  also  its  price  is  about  three  times  as  high  as 
what  can  be  allowed  for  an  automatic  sealing  device. 

The  requisites  demanded  from  a  bottle  to  undergo 
sterilization  and  for  holding  infants'  milk  may  be 
summed  up  in  the  following  points  : 

The  material  must  be  absolutely  crystal  clear,  so  that 
imperfect  cleansing  may  be  easily  detected  ;  it  must 
be  free  of  air  bubbles,  and,  in  manufacturing,  must  be 
very  gradually  cooled  to  produce  a  non-brittle  glass. 


Sterilizing'.  To 

The  best  color  for  the  bottle  is  none  at  all,  but  light 
hues  of  color  may  be  admitted  if  required  for  dis- 
tinguishing the  different  grades  of  milk.  The  shape 
should  be  conical  and  running  gradually  into  the 
neck,  avoiding  the  bulging  out  at  the  neck  common 
to  medicine  bottles.  The  inside  surface  of  the  bottom 
should  be  well  rounded  towards  the  sides,  so  that  no 
sharp  furrow  may  exist  inside  for  any  sediment  to 
stick  in. 

Every  bottle  with  a  flaw  or  bubble  should  be  re- 
jected, as  this  will  make  it  burst  at  sterilizing  ;  the 
glass  should  not  be  too  thick  or  heavy,  and  no  letter- 
ing of  any  kind  should  be  moulded  into  the  face  or 
sides  of  the  bottle,  because  these  raised  letters  obstruct 
an  equal  contraction  whilst  cooling  and  thereby  cause 
it  readily  to  burst.  The  neck  of  the  bottle  should 
be  of  equal  width  in  all  sizes  used,  so  that  the  same 
feeding  nipple  may  be  applied  to  all.  The  stopper 
must  be  an  automatic  sealing  one,  that  is,  it  must 
allow  the  air  and  gasses  which  are  driven  out  by  the 
boiling  to  escape  without  lifting  or  moving  the  stop- 
per, so  that  as  soon  as  the  pressure  from  the  inside 
relaxes  the  stopper  shows  sufficient  adheasiveness  to 
close  firmly  around  the  mouth  and  neck,  excluding 
the  outer  air;  iu  fact,  it  must  sit  on  so  firmly  as  to 
exclude  all  possibility  of  being  shaken  or  pushed  off 
during  transportation,  but  must  yet  allow  of  perfectly 
easy  removal  by  hand.  Such  a  stopper  can  naturally 
not  have  the  shape  of  a  plug,  but  is  a  hood  or  caps 
of  the  simplest  outline,  as  seen  in  Fig.  20,  yet  afford 


74  A  New  Dairy  Industry. 

ing  the  greatest  facility  to  be  turned  inside  out  for 
the  purpose  of  cleansing.  The  only  disadvantage  of 
such  a  stopper  as  compared  with  the  porcelain  and 
wire  arrangement  is  that  it  is  more  liable  to  get  lost 
or  mislaid. 

After  having  taken  every  precaution  to  make  the 
process  of  sterilizing  effective,  we  naturally  evince  a 
desire  of  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the  degree  in 
which  we  have  been  successful,  and  this  desire  be- 
comes an  absolute  necessity  when  we  turn  to  manu- 
facturing milk  into  food  for  infants. 

As  by  sterilizing,  we  have  given  the  milk  good 
kjeeping  qualities,  we  may  keep  the  milk  stored  in  a 
cool  place  until  the  investigation  which  we  shall  have 
to  institute  is  concluded,  and  shall  have  shown  us  just 
how  long  the  milk,  which  we  have  sterilized  at  a  cer- 
tain date,  will  remain  pure  and  sweet  if  kept  at  a  tem- 
perature of  00°  F.  or  below. 

The  apparatus  which  we  make  use  of  (termed  a 
thermostat)  is  an  incubator  constructed  expressly  for 
the  purpose  of  hatching  bacteria  or  breeding  certain 
of  their  species  ;  its  outward  appearance  and  constuc- 
tion  are  shown  in  cut  on  opposite  page  representing 
a  machine  built  by  F.  Sartorius,  in  Goettingen,  Ger- 
many, where  it  is  extensively  used,  and  has  been 
found  entirely  reliable.  There  is  a  heating  chamber 
in  the  center  with  glass  pannell-clacl  door  which  may 
be  darkened  by  prefixing  a  felt  pannelling.  Bacteria 
grow  more  rapidly  in  the  dark.  This  chamber  is 
completely  encased  by  a  water  chest,  w,  the  inner  snr- 


Sterilizing.  75 

face    being  of    corrugated  metal  sheathing,  so  as    to 
present  a  larger  heating  surface.     The  filling  of  this 


Fig.  8-THERMOSTAT. 

waterchest  is  through  a  small  tube,  a,  with  distilled  or 
rain  water.    Enveloping  the  water  chest  is  a  space  filled 


7(>  A  Neiv  Daii'v  Industry. 

with  isolating  material ;  at  k  we  see  the  automatic 
regulator,  an  exceedingly  sensitive  and  ingenious  ar- 
rangement, registering  changes  in  the  temperature  of 
one-fifth  of  one  degree  ;  t,  is  the  thermometer  ;  b,  d 
and  1,  is  an  arrangement  for  supplying  moist  air  to 
the  heating  chest ;  o,  is  the  ventilating  chimney  ;  c, 
in  and  s,  the  heating  apparatus,  coal  oil  or  benzine 
being  used  in  the  lamp.  Now,  from  each  days  pro- 
duction of  sterilized  milk  we  retain  two  sample  bottles, 
and  pasting  a  label  on  the  side  of  each  bottle,  record  on 
it  the  date  of  sterilizing  and  grade  of  milk  contained  in 
the  bottle.  The  bottles  are  now  placed  in  the  heating 
chest  of  the  thermostat  and  the  regulator  set  to  main- 
tain Do0,  P.,  which  is  the  temperature  most  propitous 
to  the  propagation  and  multiplication  of  bacteria. 
Morning  and  evening  these  bottles  must  be  taken 
out,  their  contents  shaken  and  attentively  investi- 
gated as  to  an}'  change  in  their  condition.  If  any 
bacteria  or  their  spores  have  escaped  the  effects  of 
sterilization  then  they  will  speedily  be  brought  to 
development  and  their  action  on  the  milk  noticeable. 
The  time,  therefore,  which  milk  will  keep  in  un- 
changed condition  in  this  incubator  is  a  fair  indication 
of  how  long  such  milk  will  keep  in  good  condition 
when  kept  at  lower  temperatures.  Milk  that  will 
keep  perfect  in  this  brooder  for  twenty-four  hours  is 
likely  to  keep  perfect  for  one  wreek  at  00°,  or  below, 
and  milk  that  keeps  for  eight  days  in  the  chest  with- 
out curdling  will,  undoubtedly,  keep  good  for  eight 
\.jeks  if  kept  in  an  ordinary  cellar,  and  ever  so  much 


Sterilising.  7  7 

longer  when  cooled  with  ice.  This  testing  should  be 
carried  through  most  strenuously  if  one  would  avoid 
disagreeable  surprises  and  serious  losses. 

We  leave  this  subject,  referring  all  those  merely  in- 


.  C 

Fig.  9-WORKING  PARTS  OF  THERMOSTAT. 

terestecl  in  sterilization  of  milk  to  the  treatise  written 
by  Monrad  on  "Pasteurization  and  Milk  Preservation," 
where  a  synopsis,  of  such  apparatus  is  given,  and  to 
the  article  by  E.  A.  de  Schweinitz  in  the  year  book 
of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  for  1.804. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

ZTbe  d&ortalitp  of  Infants. 

Cow's  milk  is  pure  only  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
healthy  animal's  udder — the  lower  parts  of  the  milk,, 
principally  that  contained  in  the  milk  cisterns  ad- 
joining the  teats,  are,  as  has  been  previously  shown, 
more  or  less  polluted  by  germs  that  have  found  their 
way  through  the  ducts  in  the  teats.  Impure  milk 
may  be,  however,  milk  physically  decomposed  by 
distemper  in  the  cow  or  by  the  admixture  of  filth, 
dust,  hair,  scales  from  the  outer  skin  of  the  udder, 
germs  of  lower  organisms,  or  by  all  these  conditions 
combined.  Watchfulness  as  to  the  sanitary  condition 
of  the  cow  and  the  observation  of  a  scrupulous  clean- 
liness in  every  handling  of  the  milk  tend  to  lessen 
the  evil  influences  just  named.  It  is  an  easy  matter 
for  every  fanner  or  dairyman  to  convince  himself,  by 
a  simple  experiment,  of  the  great  difference  in  keep- 
ing qualities  that  result  from  improved  conditions 
whilst  milking. 

Let  him  enter  his  stable  at  a  given  morning  and 
milk  three  cows  into  the  milk  pail  he  has  been  using 
all  along  and  without  any  change  of  accustomed  con- 
ditions ;  let  him  mix  this  milk  and  take  out  a  test 
sample  for  setting ;  let  him  then  take  the  next  three 
cows,  lead  them  out  into  the  open  air,  wash  the  udder> 
if  soiled,  with  warm  water,  and  dry  thoroughly  with 


The  Mortality  of  Infants.  70 

a  clean  towel,  or,  if  not  soiled,  rub  gently,  but 
thoroughly,  with  a  moist  towel,  so  that  all  dust,  hair 
and  scales  may  cling  to  it,  then  wash  hands  in  water 
and  soda,  dry  them.,  and  milk  into  a  new  milk  pail 
which  has  previously  been  well  sterilized  by  boiling 
water  and  soda,  and  letting  the  first  five  strippings 
from  every  teat  run  to  the  ground,  then  mix  the  milk 
of  these  three  cows  by  itself,  as  of  the  lot  before,  and 
place  the  test  sample  by  the  side  of  the  first  in  the 
same  place  of  storage,  at  a  temperature  of  00°  or  lessx 
and  lie  will  remark  that  the  first  sample  to  u  turn '* 
will  be  the  one  of  the  stable-milked  cows,  which  will 
take  place  in  about  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  hours, 
whilst  the  sample  from  the  second  lot,  the  one  pro- 
duced under  improved  conditions  of  cleanliness,  will 
keep  sweet  for  from  ten  to  fifteen  hours  longer  than 
the  first. 

After  improving  the  conditions  of  milking,  we  may 
turn  our  attention  to  the  straining;  and  here,  it  must 
be  confessed  with  regret,  we  find,  in  general,  a  sorry 
condition  of  affairs.  By  far  too  many  farmers  do  not 
catch  the  meaning  of  the  idea  to  be  conveyed  when 
speaking  of  microscopical  minuteness.  Thev  believe 
that  dirt,  to  be  perceptible,  must  be  visible,  and  the 
double  or  trebly-folded  cloth  in  the  strainer  is  con- 
sidered quite  an  extra  concession  to  cleanliness  and 
fancifulness  ;  yet,  minute  particles  of  dirt  do  pass, 
detectable  in  the  aggregate  even  without  the  use  of 
the  microscope  as  a  horrifying  mass  of  filth. 

A  very  simple  experiment  may  be  made  to  convince 


#50 


A  Nciv  Dairy  Industry. 


ns  of  the  quantity  of  dirt-  remaining  in  the  average 
stable-strained  milk.  Take  a  clean  glass  vessel,  of 
the  shape  shown  at  Fig.  24,  and  containing  about  one 
gallon  of  the  fresh  strained  milk,  fasten  six  inches  of 
rubber  tube  over  the  mouth  of  the  bottle  and  a  small 


K 


Fig.  24-TESTING  FILTH  IN  MILK. 

glass  test  tube  to  the  other  end  of  the  rubber  tube, 
turn  upside  down,  place  in  a  suitable  rack  and  let  it 
remain  standing  for  twelve  hours.  The  dirt  con- 
tained in  that  milk  has  now  settled  down  to  the 
bottom  of  the  small  glass  tube  ;  this  is  removed  by 
tightly  closing  the  rubber  tube  with  thumb  and  index 


The  Mortality  of  Infants.  SI 

finger,  turning  the  large  vessel  right  side  up  and  pul- 
ling away  the  rubber  tube  from  its  mouth.  The 
contents  of  the  smaller  tube  are  now  poured  over  a 
blotting  paper  filter  from  which,  after  drying,  the 
actual  amount  of  dirt  in  the  milk  may  be  ascer- 
tained by  weight.  In  this  manner  the  percentage  of 
dirt  in  the  daily  milk  brought  to  market  was  ascer- 
tained for  all  the  larger  cities  in  Germany,  and,  as  a 
result,  figures  were  published  that  shocked  the  public 
and  were  pronounced  incredible  exagerations,  until  a 
leading  scientist  in  dairying  technics  undertook  t© 
convince  the  public  by  exhibiting  these  dirt  accumu- 
lators in  operation  at  fair  grounds  and  at  all  suitable 
occasions. 

The  majority  of  milk  consumers  in  cities  when  be- 
stowing a  thought  on  the  origin  of  the  milk  brought  to 
their  home  by  the  trim  milk  wagon,  picture  the  farm 
dairy  as  a  scene  of  rural  bliss  and  healthful  surround- 
ings, where  clean  glossy  cows  browsing  in  the  sunshine 
on  flowery  pastures,  or  peacefully  lying  down,  chewing 
the  cud  in  the  shade  of  lovely  trees,  have  all  the. care 
and  attention  their  importance  merits. 

Against  this  fair  picture,  let  us  hold  up  reality  in  the 
form  of  an  abstract  from  the  able  report  of  Dr.  Howard 
Carter,  milk  inspector  of  the  city  of  St.  Louis,  Mo^ 
for  ISDo-MMi,  covering  4:>(>  dairies  with  <.>,()()()  cows:: 
u  The  sanitary  condition  of  a  majority  (of  dairies-? 
however,  is  vicious. in  the  extreme,  and  their  presence 
ii^tlie  thickly  populated  district  should  not  be  toler- 
ated. Deprivation  of  natural  food,  light,  air,  exercise 


S'J  A  N~cu>  Dairv  Industry. 

and  natural  environment  can  result  only  in  impaired 
health,  whether  in  man  or  animal.  There  are  322 
dairies  having  no  pastures,  126  having  neither  pasture 
nor  cow  lot,  77  having  improper  facilities  for  cooling 
and  storing  milk,  or  none  at  all.  The  breathing 
space  is  entirely  insufficient.  The  majority  of  dairies 
are  badly  ventilated  and  poorly  lighted,  being  more 
or  less  entirely  destitute  of  sunshine  ;  in  not  a  few 
there  is  almost  complete  and  perpetual  darkness.  In 
some  instances  the  food  for  the  cows  is  boiled  within 
the  stables — the  atmosphere  of  which  is  rendered  still 
more  oppressive  by  the  steam  and  smell  arising  from 
the  boiling  mash;  these,  added  to  the  ammoniacal  odor 
of  decomposing  urine,  produce  an  insufferable  atmos- 
phere. Of  the  milk  producing  properties  of  such 
food  as  brewers'  grains  and  the  waste  products  of  dis- 
tilleries and  vinegar  factories,  there  appears  to  be  but 
little  doubt,  yet  authorities  who  have  more  thoroughly 
investigated  the  subject  assert  that  the  quality  of 
milk  produced  under  siich  feeding  is  less  stable  in  its 
constituents,  the  fat  more  readily  broken  up  into  the 
various  fatty  acids,  the  casein  less  soluble  and  the 
whole  product  more  liable  to  the  various  forms  of  de- 
composition than  milk  produced  from  healthy  animals 
under  natural  environments.  But  the  result  of  such 
a  system  of  stabling  and  feeding  is,  however,  a  per- 
version of  the  natural  appetites  and  functions  of  the 
animals  subject  to  them.  This  is  exemplified  in  the 
refusal  of  such  animals  to  drink  water  even  in  hot 
^veather.  The  continued  use  of  partially  fermented 


The  Mortality  of  Infants.  83 

moist  food  producing  an  analogous  condition  to  that  of 
chronic  alcoholism  in  human  beings.  Such  condi- 
tions inevitably  result  in  diminished  vitality  and  a 
greater  susceptability  to  disease,  although  our  local 
dairymen  profess  a  different  opinion. 

uThere  exists  a  lamentable  and  disgraceful  disregard 
for  the  cleanliness  of  the  cows  themselves.  The  ani- 
mals are,  for  the  most  part,  confined  in  stalls  and  de- 
prived of  bedding,  standing  out  their  wretched  lives 
upon  hard  board  floors  ;  they  lie  down  in  their  own 
evacuations,  wrhich  adhere  to  the  flanks  and  udders 
in  dense  masses.  Under  these  conditions  the  produc- 
tion of  a  pure  milk  supply  is  impossible.  Milk  thus 
collected  unavoidably  contains  impurities  of  all  kinds, 
consisting  chiefly  of  stable  litter,  manure,  epithelial 
scales  from  the  teats  of  the  co\v  as  well  as  from  the 
hands  of  the  milkers." 

The  report  goes  on  to  say  that  about  seventy-five 
per  cent,  of  the  cows  in  these  dairies  were  found  to 
be  affected  with  tuberculosis,  and  the  doctor  urges 
the  necessity  of  bestowing  a  greater  share  of  public 
and  legislative  attention  than  heretofore  on  this  mat- 
ter, being  one  of  vital  importance. 

It  is  simply  wonderful  what  the  public  will  stand 
in  the  way  of  filthy  milk,  as  far  as  this  is  an  estab- 
lished fact  for  the  various  large  cities  in  Germany,  and, 
if  we  may  consider  the  frequent  complaints  found  in 
the  various  agricultural  and  dairying  periodicals  of 
this  country  as  an  indication  in  this  direction,  it  must 


84  A  New  Dairy  Industry. 

be  conjectured  that  the  state  of  things  in  America  is 
hardly  better,  if  not  worse. 

According  to  the  most  favorable  calculations  it  was 
found  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  city  of  Berlin  con- 
sumed, annually,  in  their  milk,  no  less  than  one  hun- 
dred thousand  pounds  of  cow  dung,  and  the  inhabitants 
of  the  city  of  New  York  \vill  consume  at  least  three 
times  this  amount  per  year.  This  is  the  first  point 
to  be  remedied.  When  we  consider  that  the  new- 
born babe  consumes  only  milk,  and  that  a  majority  of 
the  ailments  that  are  liable  to  befall  it  take  their 
origin  in  the  stomach,  we  must  come  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  impurity  of  the  milk  must  frequently  be 
the  cause. 

The  death  rate  of  infants  is  appaling.  On  an 
average,  twenty  per  cent,  of  all  children  born  die 
during  the  first  year  of  their  life,  and,  out  of  every 
hundred  infants  that  die,  eighty  at  least  have  been 
fed  on  cows'  milk.  But  even  the  healthfulness  of 
mothers'  milk  is  entirely  dependant  on  the  physical 
condition  of  the  mother.  Statistical  investigation 
has  shown  that  while  of  one  thousand  infants  nursed 
by  mothers  belonging  to  the  wealthy  aristocratic 
classes  only  .~>7  would  die ;  the  mothers  of  the  poorer 
classes  would  lose  o.~>7  out  of  every  thousand  of  their 
infants  in  the  same  time  and  period  of  life,  and  even 
this  terrific  loss  does  not  tell  the  whole  story,  as  large 
numbers  of  those  surviving  drag  an  impaired  consti- 
tution through  life,  owing  to  the  deleterious  effects  of 
the  damaged  and  poor  milk  imbibed  during  infancy. 


The  Mortality  of  Infants.  80 

But  mothers  that  nurse  their  own  infants  have,  for 
one  reason  and  another  become  very  scarce,  so  that 
there  is  not  one  class  of  society  in  which  natural 
nursing-  is  not  on  a  steady  decline,  and  it  is  not  exclu- 
sively the  aristocrat  that  shirks  this  duty  or  the 
woman  that  has  to  gain  her  livlihoocl  in  the  factory, 
but  it  is  just  the  same  with  the  population  in  the 
country.  I  have  lived  for  nine  years  near  a  German 
village  of  over  two  hundred  souls,  and,  on  careful  in- 
vestigation, I  was  unable  to  hear  of  one  single  case 
during  that  entire  period  where  a  mother  had  given  her 
infant  the  breast.  The  hiring  of  the  services  of  a 
wet  nurse  is  beyond  the  means  of  most  mothers  and 
even  those  that  do  resort  to  this  expedient  generally 
find  the  nurse  the  terror  of  the  household. 

Boiled  milk  is  generally  considered  a  proper  food 
for  infants,  and  people  have  thought  that  to  boil  milk 
at  home  and  dilute  it  with  water  was  all  that  had  to 
be  done  to  ensure  a  faultless  article  of  food  for  the 
infant.  A  number  of  receipes  have,  in  the  course  of 
time,  been  brought  forward  and  tried,  such  as  pepton- 
izing  the  cow  casein  by  the  admixture  of  pancreas 
ferment  or  the  addition  of  preparations  of  white  of 
egg,  not  one  of  these  compounds  has,  however,  been 
able  to  receive  the  support  of  medical  science,  and 
very  justly  so.  Simple,  but  not  always  effective,  ap- 
paratus— like  the  Soxhlet — have  been  invented  for 
sterilizing  infants'  milk  at  a  small  cost  in  every  house- 
hold, yet  their  utility  is,  in  a  great  measure,  de- 
pendent on  what  the  quality  and  condition  of  the 


8(3  A  New  Dairy  Industry. 

milk  has  been  before  it  reached  the  house.  We  know 
now  positively  that  all  germs  contained  in  fresh  milk  : 
baccillae,  spores  and  ferments  begin  to  multiply  im- 
mediately after  being  drawn  from  the  cow  with  an 
astonishing  rapidity,  so  that  milk  produced  under  the 
most  favorable  conditions  may  contain  millions  of 
germs  if  several  hours  have  elapsed  between  the 
drawing  from  the  cow  and  the  boiling  or  sterilizing 
of  it.  And  even  if  we  could  remedy  this  defect  by 
keeping  a  cow  in  every  household,  we  should  not  be 
producing  an  infants'  food  that  could  be  pronounced  a 
fit  substitute  for  the  mother's  breast,  for  we  must  ever 
remember  that  cou?s  milk  is  not  mothers  milk^  and 
that  tJie  new-born  babe  does  not  possess  the  stomach  of 
a  calf. 

Let  us  look  at  a  comparison  of  the  two  milks  taken 
from  one  hundred  and  fifty  analyses  : 

Cow's  Milk.  Woman's  Milk. 

Water 87.5  per  cent.  88.25  per  cent. 

Casein 3.0         "  0.75         " 

Albumen 0.5          "  1.00 

Fat 3.5         "  3.50 

Milk  sugar  ....         4-8  6.25 

Ashes    .  0.7         "  0.25         " 


100.0         u         100.0 

We  remark  at  a  glance  the  great  difference  of  pro- 
portions in  the  various  constituents  of  the  two  milks, 
and  when  we  consider  that  an  infant's  stomach  is  an 
exceeding  dainty  apparatus,  it  will  be  at  once  clear 


77/6'  Mortality  of  Infants.  S7 

that  these  differences  may  be  the  cause  of  grave  de- 
rangements, and  this,  in  fact,  is  the  case. 

The  principal  difference,  and  the  one  which  before 
all  others  claims  correction,  is  the  excess  of  casein  in 
cow's  milk  in  a  form  not  of  easy  digestion  ;  further- 
more, the  scantness  of  milk  sugar  and  of  albumen. 

Medical  authorities  do  not  seem  to  entirely  agree 
on  the  equality  of  the  chemical  composition  of  the 
casein  in  cow's  milk  and  in  human  milk  ;  we  may, 
however,  without  attempting  to  express  an  opinion 
on  this  matter,  fix  our  attention  on  the  difference  in 
digestability  of  the  two  caseins,  as  this  is  of  prime 
importance  in  the  process  of  the  infant's  nourishment. 
If  a  small  quantity  of  woman's  milk  be  taken  and  a 
few  drops  of  extract  of  rennet  added,  in  imitation  of 
the  process  inacted  in  the  infant's  stomach,  it  will  be 
seen  that  this  milk  coagulates  in  the  form  of  finest- 
flakes,  looking  more  like  very  minute  grits,  while,  if 
we  repeat  this  experiment  with  cow's  milk,  we  shall 
see  the  casein  formed  into  large,  more  or  less  com- 
pact, lumps.  The  digesting  juices  of  the  infant's 
stomach  are  able  easily  to  reduce  the  finely  curdled 
casein  of  mother's  milk,  but  the  lumps  of  the  cow 
casein  are  not  easily  digested,  cause  inconvenience, 
and  are,  as  we  all  have  had  occasion  to  observe,  fre- 
quently ejected  from  the  infant's  stomach.  To  reduce 
the  amount  of  casein  in  cow's  milk  by  diluting  with 
water  is  a  proceeding  adopted  by  many  ;  it  is  not, 
however,  a  recipe  to  bring  the  milk  any  closer  in 
composition  to  mother's  milk,  as,  by  so  doing,  we  re- 


8<S  A  AVet'  Dairy  Industry. 

duce  yet  further  the  already  deficient  percentage  of 
milk  sugar,  albumen  and  fat,  the  latter,  especially,  fur- 
nishing- the  greater  .part  of  strength  in  the  infant's 
food,  and  it  is  exactly  this  strength  which  is  so  im- 
portant a  matter  to  be  kept  up. 

Our  aim  in  preparing  a  reliable  substitute  for  the 
mothers'  breast,  in  producing  an  artificial  mothers' 
milk,  must  then  be  to  convert  cow's  milk,  by  an  ab- 
solutely harmless  proceeding,  into  a  thoroughly 
healthy  milk,  containing  exactly  and  constantly  a 
uniform  percentage  of  ingredients  closely  resembling 
those  contained  in  healthy  mothers'  milk  and  to 
change  the  form  of  curdling  of  the  casein  into  the 
one  proper  to  human  milk.  Simple  as  this  undertak- 
ing may  seem  to  a  mind  that  has  not  had  an  oppor- 
tunity to  study  the  intricacies  of  the  matter,  this 
desideratum  has  been  the  life  aim  of  many  a  scientist, 
and  it  is  only  the  last  few  years  that  have  brought  us 
closer  to  the  attainment  of  this  boon,  by  the  labors 
and  successes  of  Prof.  Backhaus,  of  Goettiiigen,  of 
Prof.  Goertner,  of  Vienna,  and  others,  in  whose 
methods  of  converting  cow's  milk  into  artificial 
mothers'  milk,  we  now7  possess  admirably  planned 
processes,  in  which  every  change  and  manipulation  is 
founded  and  supported  by  universally  accepted  medi- 
cal principles.  The  satisfaction  with  which  this 
milk  has  been  hailed  by  the  medical  men  in  Europe, 
has  created  a  demand  for  it  beyond  all  expectations, 
and  in  a  very  short  time  every  city  and  town  will 
possess  a  dairy  manufacturing  this  artificial  mothers' 


The  Mortality  of  Infants.  SO 

milk,  and  to  judge  from  the  numerous  inquiries  that 
have  been  sent  from  America,  and  from  the  hearty 
encouragement  I  have  received  from  the  medical  men 
of  this  country,  it  would  seem  that  this  article  will, 
also  here,  be  gladly  hailed,  and  fill  the  place  of  a  true 
blessing.  It  will  not  be  found  amiss  to  append  two 
testimonials  from  German  physicians  : 

Dr.  (inecl.)  Hess,  says:  "During  the  epidemic  of 
cholera  infantnm,  in  the  summer  of  1805,  I  had  the 
opportunity  of  becoming  acquainted  with  the  nutri- 
tive and  curative  properties  of  the  normal  infants' 
milk.  I  treated  eighty-two  infants,  part  of  them 
purely  medicinally,  and  part  of  them  purely  clieti- 
callv,  another  part  with  combined  treatment,  accord- 
ing to  the  age  of  the  infants  and  the  intelligence  of 
the  parents.  On  the  whole,  I  am  able  to  record  great 
success  in  all  cases  where  the  nursing  was  properly 
attended  to,  where  the  milk  was  administered  accord- 
ing to  instructions,  and  where  the  infant  received  the 
milk  direct  from  the  bottle.  I  had  eight  cases  of 
death,  two  of  these  were  infants  that  had  received  the 
normal  milk.  Out  of  my  eighty-two  little  patients, 
fifty-five  were  treated  with  the  normal  milk  alone, 
fifteen  received  medicines  besides,  twelve  were  treated 
with  medicines  only,  and  of  these  latter,  six  died. 
The  medicines  prescribed  were  :  Kreosot,  argent, 
nitric.  Colombo  and  Bism.  subnitr,  according  as  con- 
ditions required,  also  Tokay  wine.  My  opinion  is, 
that  if  I  were  placed  before  the  alternative  to  com- 
bat a  case  of  cholera  infantum,  or  of  summer  diarrhea 


90  A  New  Dairy  Industry. 

with  either  the  normal  infants'  milk,  or  with  medi- 
cines, I  should  imhesitatingly  try  it  with  the  first,  be- 
cause I  have  become  convinced  of  the  uselessness  of 
the  medicines  without  regulating  the  diet." 

Dr.  (med.)  Marx,  says  :  "  During  the  summer  of 
1895  I  experimented  with  the  normal  infants'  milk 
on  a  number  of  sick  and  of  healthly  infants,  reaching 
surprising  results.  In  cases  of  summer  diarrhea  and 
cholera  infantum,  even  where  the  Soxhlet  milk  had 
been  given  without  avail,  an  immediate  improvement 
followed  the  taking  of  the  normal  milk,  vomiting  and 
discharges  ceased,  giving  place  to  a  healthy  digestion. 
In  healthy  infants,  where  nursing  by  the  mother  was 
impossible,  and  the  normal  milk  given,  I  found  an 
average  daily  increase  in  weight  of  :•>(")  grammes  dur- 
ing the  first  months  of  life.  Cases  where  the  normal 
infants'  milk  did  not  agree  at  all,  or  even  where  it 
did  not  well  agree  with  an  infant,  have  not  come 
under  my  observation." 

Professor  P^scherich  says  :  "  It  is  a  well  known  fact 
that,  even  with  the  aid  of  the  nu.st  perfect  hygienic 
conditions,  infants  with  satisfactory  digestion,  but  not 
brought  up  on  the  breast,  do  not  show  the  same 
resistancy  against  sickness  that  breast-infants  do.  It 
is  to  be  hoped  that  by  the  introduction  of  the  normal 
infants'  milk  the  percentage  of  failures  will  be 
lessened.  The  normal  milk  may  Le  given  to  infants 
of  all  ages,  but  is  more  particularly  indicated  when 
infants,  for  some  cause  or  other,  take  too  little  food, 
and  which,  in  consequence  of  insufficient  nourish- 


77ic  .Mortality  of  Infants.  <>1 

ment  and  intercurrent  ailings,  have  been  stunted  in 
development,  also  to  infants  which  are  to  be  weaned 
from  the  breast,  or  where  the  breast  is  not  entirely 
sufficient,  and  to  such  which  possess  particularly 
irritable  organs  of  digestion.  The  pugnacious  con- 
stipation so  often  noted  in  infants  that  take  diluted 
or  undiluted  cow's  milk  will  vanish  with  normal 
milk  and  reappear  when  changed  back  to  the  former. 
Only  in  those  forms  of  acute  indigestion  that  end 
with  diarrhea,  and  in  which  milk  in  any  form  is  not 
supported,  also  the  administration  of  normal  milk 
should  be  suspended  and  another  regime  prescribed 
by  the  physician.  In  all  other  chronic  forms  of 
indigestion  and  indications  of  weakness  a  heightened 
assimilation  of  fat  is  of  importance,  as  this  factor  of 
nourishment  is  particularly  well  absorbed  by  the 
infantile  colon  without  any  precursory  enzymotic 
transformation.  Clinical  observations  have  been 
made  in  this  direction  by  Bicdert,  Han.c,  Dcmme 
and  at  Monti's  Polyclinic.  The  great  advantage 
which  normal  infants'  milk  posesses,  as  compared 
\vith  other  "prepared  "  or  "modified  ''  milks,  is  that 
it  contains  a  proper  percentage  of  fat  but  only  a  third 
part  of  the  casein,  which  is  so  difficult  of  digestion, 
and  it  is  just  this  fat  which  allows  of  a  copious  sup- 
ply of  calorics  without  overburdening  the  digestive 
organs.  An  idea  prevails  that  younger  infants 
require  a  nourishment  of  different  composition  than 
older  ones  and  that  mothers'  milk  undergoes  a  change 
with  the  advancing  age  of  the  infant.  The  more 


(.)2  A  New  Dairy  Industry. 

recent  investigations  have,  however,  refuted  this 
assumption.  It  has  been  found  that,  apart  from  the 
first  fortnight,  the  milk  from  one  and  the  same  wet- 
nurse  did  not  materially  change  during  the  entire 
nursing  period.  Soxlilct,  Heubner  and  others  recom- 
mend to  follow  the  example  set  by  nature  and  to 
prepare  the  normal  milk  to  one  unvarying  standard, 
and  experience  has  proved  this  to  be  correct.  A 
most  valuable  feature  is  the  steady  increase  in  weight 
of  infants  that  take  normal  milk.  Professor  Esche- 
rich  has  published  the  results  of  his  investigations  in 
this  line  ;  from  them  I  take  one  example  : 

Week  of  Life. 

23d  ... 

24th  .    .  . 

25th  .    .  . 

26th  .    .  . 

27th  .    .  . 

28th  .    .  . 

29th  .    .  . 

30th  .    .  . 

This  infant,  when  receiving  normal  milk  for  the 
first  time,  weighed  5,075  grammes,  while  the  normal 
weight  of  a  babe  twenty-three  weeks  old  has  been 
found,  by  Camerer,  to  average  0,132  grammes.  The 
infant  was,  therefore,  lighter  by  457  grammes  than  a 
normal  infant.  Now,  the  average  advance  in  weight 
of  an  infant  between  the  twenty-third  and  thirtieth 
week  has  been  ascertained  at  719  grammes,  for  such 


Weight 

Weekly 

Quantity  of 

of  Infants,  in 

Advance,  in 

Normal  Milk 

Grammes. 

Grammes. 

Taken. 

5,075 



1,300 

0,000 

325 

1,300 

0,500 

500 

1,300 

0,775 

275 

1,750 

0,900 

125 

1,750 

7,100 

200 

2,000 

7,350 

250 

2.000 

7,575 

225 

2JOOO 

The  Mortality  of  Infants.  03 

as  are  nursed  on  the  breast,  and  818  grammes  for  those 
artificially  nursed.  The  infant  in  question  had,  how- 
ever, made  a  gain  of  full  1,900  grammes,  and  at  the 
end  of  the  period  of  observation  was  0*25  grammes 
heavier  than  a  normal  infant,  it  had,  in  other  words, 
caught  up  its  deficiency  and  made  a  big  advance. 
Another  striking  example  is  given  of  a  younger 
infant,  a  baby  girl,  in  the  Gras  hospital : 

Week  of  Life. 
3d     ... 

4th  ... 

5th  .  .  . 

Oth  .  .  . 

'.7th  .  .  . 

8th  .  .  . 

Oth  .  .  . 

10th  .  .  . 

llth  .  .  . 

In  eight  weeks  this  infant  had  gained  1,080  gr., 
while  infants  artificially  nursed  and  of  the  same  age 
only  average  a  gain  of  1,100  gr.,  and  children  on  the 
breast  1,582  gr.  ;  we  must  here  take  into  considera- 
tion that  the  hospital  is  no  ideal  field  for  experiments 
in  rearing  infants  on  the  bottle. 

The  transit  from  common  milk  to  normal  milk  is,, 
generally,  accompanied  by  the  immediate  cessation  of 
any  abnormal  activity  of  digestion  ;  it  will  be  well, 
however,  in  all  cases,  to  proceed  cautiously.  Dr. 
Steiner  remarks  in  his  report  on  experiences  with 


Weight 

Weekly 

Quantity  of 

of  Infant,  in 

Advance,  in 

Normal  Milk 

Grammes. 

Grammes. 

Taken. 

3,000 



800 

3,850 

250 

000 

4,175 

325 

1,000 

4,400 

225 

1,000 

4,050 

250 

1,200 

4,800 

150 

1,300 

5,100 

300 

1,300 

5,150 

10 

1,200 

5,280 

130 

1,240 

94  A  New  Dairy  Industry. 

normal  infants'  milk  :  "  Dyspetic  infants  I  give  a  day 
of  fasting-,  that  is,  they  are  put  on  Russian  tea — ad 
libitum — and  commence  the  treatment  with  calomel 
or  an  irrigation.  I  have  never  ventured  to  pass  from 
the  dyspepsia-producing  food  to  the  normal  milk 
without  this  pause  of  twenty-four  or  thirty-six  hours 
and  without  cleansing  the  digestive  tract.  In  chronic 
dyspepsias  I  commence  with  an  irrigation  and  follow 
up,  partly  with  acid,  muriat.  dilut.  (\~-1.0  :  200  one 
teaspoonful  every  two  hours,  or  n:ngist.  bisnmthi  1.0 
-2.0  :  100,  or  tinct.  rhei  1.0  :  lOO.r.  \Vherc  there  is 
inclination  to  vomit  I  give  the  milk  cold.  Scrupul- 
ous cleanliness  of  feeding  bottle  ;  feeding  nipple  to  be 
put  on  milk  bottle  direct.  Punctuality  in  giving  the 
meals  and  in  the  pauses  that  have  been  fixed  upon. 
For  the  normal  milk  I  have  found  as  the  best  inter- 
vals— cases  of  premature  birth  excepted  : 


For  the  first  week 2?,  to 

First  to  second  month    .    .    . 
Third  to  fifth  month  . 


hours 
hours 
hours 


Sixth  to  twelfth  month  ...  4    hours 

"During  the  night  one  or  two  feedings.  From  the 
tenth  month  onward  other  food  in  connection  with 
the  milk.  If  infants  find  the  intervals  too  long,  I 
give  boiled,  and  subsequently  cooled,  spring  water 
with  a  spoon.  The  strict  observance  of  the  quanti- 
ties of  milk  given  has  proved  to  be  less  urgent  than 
the  strict  observance  of  the  intervals.  On  the  whole, 
I  have  found  the  quantities  given  in  the  following 


The  Mortality  of  Infants.  95 

table  sufficient,  although  the  requirement  changes 
with  the  individual.  With  weak  infants,  and  such 
that  are  reconvalescent  from  Dyspepsia,  I  always  pre- 
scribe the  I.  grade  of  normal  milk  in  somewhat 
smaller  doses,  augmenting  them  gradually  : 


Feeding 

Single 

Number  of 

Quantity  con- 

Age of  Infant. 

Interval, 

dose, 

meals  in 

sumed  daily, 

hours. 

gr. 

24  hours. 

gr. 

1   week 

2J-: 

30-  50 

7-8 

9,-)0-    :>oo 

1    month 

50-100 

7 

;>-)()-     700 

2  months 

100-150 

*~~ 

700-1,050 

3  months 

ij 

100-150 

7 

700-  ,050 

4  months 

JJ 

150-200 

6-7 

000-  ?40o 

5  months 

U 

150-200 

6-7 

000-  ,400 

(3  months 

4" 

150-200 

6-7 

1,000-  ,400 

7-9  months 

4 

250 

6 

,500 

"After  dyspepsia  1  have  found  the  recuperation  of 
weight  even  more  rapid  than  in  breast  infants." 

Many  believe  that  two  kinds  of  milk  arc  injurious 
to  an  infant.  This  is  erroneous.  Normal  milk  can 
be  given  with  greatest  advantage  together  with 
mothers'  or  nurses1  milk  ;  it  should  naturally  be  of 
faultless  quality,  and  adapted  to  the  digestive  forces 
of  the  infant.  Professor  (kertner,  of  Vienna,  gives 
the  following  experience  with  the  feeding  of  twin 
babies  who,  together,  possessed  but  one  nurse,  and  a 
very  poor  one  at  that.  From  the  fifth  week  of  their 
lives,  onward,  they  received,  each,  about  a  pint  of  the 
normal  milk  daily,  their  gain  in  weight  may  be  seen 
from  .the  following  table  : 


A  AVer  Dairv  Industry. 


Ci 

[ARLOTTK   F. 

M  ELAN  IK 

F. 

Week  of 
Life. 

Weight. 

Gain,  in 
Grammes. 

Week 
Life 

of     Weight. 

Gain,  in 
Grammes. 

5th  . 

3,500 



5th 

3,250 



Oth  . 

3,800 

300 

6th 

3,500 

250 

7th  . 

4,850 

550 

7th 

3,930 

430 

Sth  . 

4,600 

250 

Sth 

4,250 

320 

<)th  . 

5,000 

400 

9th 

4,630 

3SO 

10th  . 

5,250 

250 

10th 

4,850 

220 

Gain  in 

5  weeks, 

1,750  gr. 

Gain 

in  5  weeks, 

1,000  err. 

These  infants  were  a  picture  of  health,  and  never 
showed  the  slightest  inconvenience  in  consequence  of 
their  variegated  bill  of  fare. 

The  success  of  these  investigations  led  to  others  in 
the  direction  of  ascertaining  the  effects  of  normal 
milk  on  adults.  In  complaints  of  the  stomach,  as 
well  as  in  other  derangements,  for  instance,  those  ac- 
companied by  fever,  the  activity  of  this  organ  is  seri- 
ously depressed.  The  segregation  of  gastric  juice  is 
insufficient,  or  even  entirely  paralyzed  ;  the  food  eaten 
is  not  digested  in  a  certain  space  of  time,  but  remains 
for  a  longer  period,  passes  to  fermentation  and  decom- 
position, engendering  the  well  known  symptoms  of 
serious  indigestion.  A  nourishment  which  exacts  no 
strain  on  the  digestive  forces  of  the  stomach  should 
be  offered  to  such  patients.  .We  know  that  the  mere 
physical  function  of  the  stomach  is  to  transform  the 
food  eaten  into  a  homeogenous  slop. 

The  investigations  of  v.  Mchring  have  shown  that 
fluids  are  not  assimilated  in  the  stomach.  Every  drop 


The  Mortality  of  Infants.  07 

of  wine,  water  or  beer  we  consume  passes  to  the 
colon,  which  is  the  true  organ  of  resorption.  When 
we  compare  the  immense  quantities  of  fluids  some 
people  are  able  to  absorb,  with  the  limited  capacity 
of  the  stomach,  we  may  conjecture  that  these  liquids 
do  not  remain  in  the  stomach  for  a  very  long  time, 
and  that  they  cannot  be  subjected  to  digestion  in  the 
stomach.  This  is  the  explanation  why,  in  serious 
derangement  of  the  functions  of  the  stomach,  liquid 
nourishment  alone  is  supported.  When  speaking  of 
liquid  nourishment  we  are  apt  to  think  of  broth  and 
milk. 

Now,  it  is  known  that  beef-broth  is  rather  an  in- 
centive a  stimulant  than  a  nourishment,  and  that  we 
should  never  succeed  in  keeping  a  person  alive  on 
broth  alone,  while  milk  contains  every  ingredient  ne- 
cessary to  the  building  up  and  sustenance  of  the  or- 
ganism. Is  milk,  however,  a  liquid  nourishment  ? 
It  is  so  only  as  long  as  it  is  outside  of  the  stomach. 
On  arrival  in  the  stomach  it  is  curdled,  transformed 
into  a  lump  by  the  acid  and  the  rennet  present,  and* 
this  lump  must  be  dissolved  again  by  the  gastric 
juice.  Bearing' this  in  mind,  we  must  call  cow's  milk 
a  solid  food,  and  not  a  liquid  one.  Physicians  find 
this  corroborated  in  their  daily  practice.  Here  is  the 
all  important  difference  between  woman's  milk  and 
cow's  milk,  for  woman's  milk  remains  liquid,  or,  what 
is  the  same,  curdles  in  so  minutely  fine  flakes  in  the 
stomach  that  it  is  able  to  pass  on  from  it  without  pre- 
vious digestion. 


O.S  A  Neiv  Dairy  Industry. 

We  have  proof  that  this  principle  has  been  known 
and  made  use  of  in  antiquity,  hundreds  of  years 
before  the  advent  of  Christ.  The  physicians,  Eury- 
phon  and  Herodikes,  living  at  the  time  of  Hippocrates 
(460  to  387  B.  C.)  had  published  a  method  of  curing 
dyspepsia,  making  their  patients  take  woman's  milk 
from  the  breast,  direct.  If  we  are,  therefore,  able  to 
manufacture  normal  milk  in  exact  imitation  of 
mothers'  milk,  then,  we  produce  a  liquid  nourish- 
ment which  does  not  remain  in  the  stomach  but  a 
very  short  time,  and  does  not  put  any  strain  on  its 
functions.  Buttermilk  and  whey  have  the  same  pro- 
perty, only  they  are  deficient  in  principles  of  nourish- 
ment. A  special  indication  for  normal  milk  is  to 
diabetics  ;  the  milk  is  then  specially  prepared  with- 
out the  addition  of  milk  sugar.  Most  successful 
treatments  are  on  record  with  this  classs  of  patients, 
thousands  of  whom  are  taking  the  normal  milk 
regularly,  up  to  three  liters  per  day. 


CHAPTER  X. 

Hrtmcial  fl&otbers'  /HMlfe—  IRormal  infants' 


From  what  has  been  said  in  the  preceding  pages, 
we  become  aware  that  the  end  to  be  attained,  is  the 
transformation  of  pure  cow's  milk  into  a  milk,  which, 
in  its  nutritive  elements,  is  analogous  to  mothers'  milk, 
the  composition  of  which  is  of  a  constant  uniformity, 
and  its  keeping  qualities  allow  of  its  being  trans" 
ported  to  great  distances,  and  undergo  all  changes  of 
temperature  experienced  during  summer  transporta- 
tion for  a  lengthened  period,  without  spoiling  or  any 
way  changing.  We  have  also  seen  that  the  first  step 
to  be  taken  in  this  direction  is  the  supervision  of  the 
production  of  the  raw  material,  the  exaction  of 
scrupulous  cleanliness  in  the  keeping  of  the  milk 
cows  and  the  utensils  employed,  as  \vell  as  an  unre- 
mittant  control  of  all  conditions  influencing  the  phy- 
sical welfare  of  the  cows,  and  of  the  quality  of  the  food 
fed  to  them. 

In  a  subsequent  chapter  will  be  laid  down  what 
should  be  exacted  to  insure  a  healthy  condition  of 
the  milk.  We  now  pass  on  to  the  manufacture  of 
this  milk  into  artificial  mothers'  milk  —  normal  in- 
fants' milk  —  in  two  grades,  the  first  to  resemble 
mothers'  milk  in  the  exact  proportion  of  all  nutritious 


1.00  A   Neiv  Dairy  Indus  try. 

ingredients,  and  to  be  a  perfect  and  wholesome  sub- 
stitute for  mothers'  milk  for  infants  from  the  time  of 
birth  up  to  the  fourth  month  ;  the  second  grade  of 
normal  milk  to  contain  the  same  percentage  of  fat, 
albuminoids  and  milk-sugar,  but  having  a  .slightly 
higher  percentage  of  casein,  being  intended  to  be 
given  to  infants  after  the  third  or  fourth  month  of 
their  lives,  and  to  form  a  transitory  food  from  the  first 
grade  of  milk  to  pure  cow's  milk,  a  most  necessary 
precaution,  when  we  take  into  account  the  extreme 
difficulty  experienced  by  the  infant  stomach  to  digest 
the  casein  in  pure  cow's  milk. 

In  undertaking  to  describe  the  various  operations 
destined  to  transform  cow's  milk  into  normal  infants' 
milk  it  must,  right  here,  be  admitted  that  no  descrip- 
tion, however  lucid,  will  enable  a  beginner  to  produce 
the  desired  article  from  the  start,  there  being  con- 
nected with  the  whole  proceeding  a  number  of  small 
manipulations  and  advantages,  which  although  in  no 
manner  business  secrets  (as  some  would  try  to  make 
them  out  and  guard  them  from  the  public)  yet  are 
proceedings  which  are  only  mastered  by  practical 
experience  and  personal  application.  In  Germany, 
Austria  and  France,  where  the  manufacture  of  nor- 
mal infants'  milk  is  rapidly  gaining  ground,  this 
apparent  difficulty  is  by  no  means  considered  a  dis- 
advantage, but,  quite  the  contrary,  as  a  protection,  as 
it  tends  to  keep  at  a  distance  that  class  of  competi- 
tion which  would  speedily  tend  to  discredit  normal 
milk. 


Artificial  Mothers*  Milk. 


101 


The  principal  operations  we   shall  have  to  follow 
will  be: 

The  testing  of  the  cow's  milk  for  fat  percentage 

and  acidity. 

The  separating  into  cream  and  skim  milk. 
The  reduction  of  the  casein  in  the  skim  milk 

and  the  transformation  of  the  remaining  into 

the  finely  coagulating  form. 
The  mixing,  sugaring  and  bottling. 
The  sterilizing  and  the  testing  of  the  sterilized 

milk  as  to  its  keeping  qualities  and  its  freeness 

from  germs. 

Starting  on  the  assumption  that  the  manufacture  is 
to  be  connected  with  an  es- 
tablished dairy,  and,  as  we 
shall  see  later  on,  the  man- 
ufacture of  the  normal  milk 
and  the  maintenance  of  the 
dairy,  is  inseparable  one 
from  the  other  if  any  guar- 
antee of  purity  is  to  be  at- 
tained it  will  then  generally 
be  found  advantageous  for 
the  beginner  to  pass  the 
milk  over  a  system  of  cool- 
ers immediately  after  drawr- 
ing,  and  this  will  become  an  absolute  necessity  where 
the  evening's  milking  has  to  be  turned  into  normal 
milk  on  the  following  morning. 

The  milk,  as  it- runs  from  the  cooler,  is  collected  in 


Fig.  23-STAR  MILK  COOLER. 


10'2  A  $ew  Dairy  Industry. 

large  receiving  vats,  where  it  may  be  thoroughly 
mixed.  The  first  proceeding  is  to  make  sure  of  the 
percentage  of  fat  contained  in  the  entire  quantity  of 
milk.  If  the  same  cows  are  milked  daily  for  the 
manufacture  of  the  normal  milk,  and  the  same  food 
fed  to  them  without  change,  then  it  will  suffice  to 
take  the  fat  test  but  once  a  week  ;  if,  however,  a  new 
cow  has  been  brought  in,  or  one  of  the  old  ones  dis- 
charged, or  the  feed  been  changed  in  any  way,  then 
a  test  will  be  necessary  as  often  as  one  of  the  in- 
dicated changes  has  occurred.  To  take  a  fair  test 
sample,  the  milk  should  previously  be  well  stirred 
with  a  wooden  paddle  for  two  minutes  consecutively. 
There  are  milk  samplers,  like  the  Scovillc,  in  the 
market,  yet  a  common  white  glass  tube,  three-eighths 
of  an  inch  inside  diameter,  will  answer  the  purpose 
equally  well.  Its  length  should  exceed  by  six  inches, 
more  or  less,  the  depth  of  vessel  in  which  the  milk  is 
contained.  This  tube  is  dipped  into  the  milk,  the 
upper  end  closed  by  pressing  on  the  thumb.  When 
the  tube  has  reached  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  the 
thumb  is  removed,  the  lips  are  applied,  and,  by  a 
steady  suction,  drawing  the  tube  upwards  out  of  the 
milk  slowly,  the  tube  is  filled  with  milk  from  all 
parts  of  the  vessel.  This  is  repeated  three  or  four 
times,  emptying  the  samples  into  a  glass  dish.  If  the 
milk  to  be  turned  into  normal  milk  has  been  collected 
in  several  different  vessels,  then  the  test  samples  have 
to  be  taken  from  each  and  every  one,  and  in  a  fair 
proportion  to  the  contents  of  each  vessel,  so  that  if, 


Artificial  Mothers'*  Milk.  103 

for  instance,  four  glass  tubefuls  have  been  drawn 
from  a  vessel  containing  forty  quarts,  then  from  a 
vessel  containing  but  thirty  quarts  only  three  tube- 
fuls should  be  drawn,  or  two  from  another  vessel 
containing  only  twenty  quarts,  etc.  The  test  samples 
are  all  collected  in  the  same  dish  and  the  testing  at 
once  performed.  The  temperature  of  milk  for  testing 
should  be  02°  F.,  more  or  less.  Two  colateral  tests 
should  be  made  of  every  sample  to  avoid  errors. 
Quite  a  number  of  methods  and  apparatus  for  testing 
have  been  invented,  the  most  accurate  being  probably 
the  Soxhlet ;  for  use  in  dairies,  however,  this  method 
is  too  complicated,  and  the  best  known  tester  in  this 
country  is  the  Babcock. 

According  to  the  instructions  kindly  furnished  me 
by  Prof.  S.  M.  Babcock,  of  the  Wisconsin  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station,  the  method  of  operating  the  test 
is  as  follows  : 

THE    BABCOCK    TEST. 

The  estimation  of  fat  in  milk  by  this  test  is  ac- 
complished by  adding  to  a  definite  quantity  of  milk, 
in  a  graduated  test  bottle,  an  equal  volume  of  com- 
mercial sulphuric  acid  of  a  spgr.  of  1.82—1.83.  This 
acid  dissolves  the  casein,  setting  free  the  fat,  which  is 
then  completely  separated  from  the  liquid  in  the 
bottle  by  whirling  in  a  centrifugal  machine.  Hot 
water  is  afterwards  filled  into  the  bottles  to  bring  the 
separated  fat  into  the  graduated  neck,  where  the  per 
cent,  is  read  directly  from  the  scale. 


104  A  New  Dairy  Industry. 

MAKING   THE   TEST. 

Sampling  the  Milk. — Accurate  tests  can  only  be  ob- 
tained when  the  cream  is  evenly  distributed  through- 
out the  whole  mass  of  milk.  This  is  best  accomplished 
~j  by  pouring  the  milk  a  number  of  times  from  one 
vessel  to  another.  Pouring  three  or  four  times 
will  be  sufficient  for  fresh  milk  fresh  from  the 
cow.  Milk  that  has  stood  until  a  layer  of  cream 
has  formed,  should  be  poured  more  times,  until 
all  clots  of  cream  are  broken  up  and  the  whole 
appears  homogenous. 

MEASURING    THE    MILK. 

When  the  milk  has  been  sufficiently  mixed, 
the  milk  pipette  is  filled  by  placing  its  lower 
end  into  the  milk  and  sucking  at  the  upper  end 

\  /  until  the  milk  rises  above  the  mark  on  the  stem; 
then  remove  the  pipette  from  the  mouth  and 
quickly  close  the  tube  at  the  upper  end  by  firm- 
ly pressing  the  end  of  the  index  finger  upon  it 

F'g-io.  to  prevent  access  of  air.     So  long  as  this  is  done 

MILK 

PIPETTE  the  milk  cannot  flow  from  the  pipette.  Holding 
the  pipette  in  a  perpendicular  position,  with  the  mark 
on  the  level  with  the  eye,  carefully  relieve  the  pres- 
sure on  the  finger  so  as  to  admit  air  slowly  to  the 
space  above  the  milk.  In  order  to  more  easily  con- 
trol the  access  of  air,  the  finger  and  end  of  the  pipette 
should  be  dry.  When  the  upper  surface  of  the  milk 
coincides  with  the  mark  upon  the  stem,  the  pressure 
hould  be  renewed  to  stop  the  flow  of  milk.  Next 


Artificial  Mothers*  Milk.  105 

place  the  pipette  in  the  mouth  of  one  of  the  test 
bottles,  held  in  a  slightly  inclined  position  so  that  the 
milk  will  flow  down  the  side  of  the  tube,  leaving  a 
space  for  the  air  to  escape  without  clogging  the  neck, 
and  remove  the  finger,  allowing  the  milk  to  flow  into 
the  bottle.  After  waiting  a  short  time  for  the  pipette 
to  drain,  blow  into  the  upper  end  to  expel  the  milk 
held  by  capillary  attraction  in  the  point.  If  the 
pipette  is  not  dry  when  used,  it  should  be  filled  with 
the  milk  to  be  tested,  and  this  thrown  away  before 
taking  the  test  sample.  If  several  samples  of 
the  same  milk  are  taken  for  comparison,  the 
milk  should  be  poured  once  from  one  vessel 
to  another  before  each  sample  is  measured. 

ADDING    THE    ACID. 

T"  nrj^- 

Cyreat  care  should  be  taken  in  handling  the    Fig  12. 
acid,  as  it  is  very  corrosive,  causing  sores  upon      ACID 
the  skin  and  destroying  clothing  unless  quick- 
ly removed.     If,  by  accident,  any  is  spilled  upon  the 
clothes  or  hands,  it  should  be  washed    off    immedi- 
ately, using  plenty  of  water.     A  prompt  application 
of  ammonia  water  to   clothing  upon  which   acid  is 
spilled  may  prevent  the  destruction  of  the  fabric,  or 
restore  the  color. 

The  acid  measure  is  filled  to  the  mark  with  sul- 
phuric acid  and  carefully  poured  into  the  test  bottle 
containing  the  milk  to  be  tested.  This  bottle  should 
be  held  in  a  slightly  inclined  position,  so  as  to  allow 
the  acid  to  run  down  the  side  of  the  bottle.  The 


106 


A  New  Dairy  Industry. 


acid  is  heavier  than  the  milk  and  sinks  directly  to  the 
bottom,  forming  a  clear  layer.  The  acid  and  milk 
should  be  thoroughly  mixed  together  by  shaking  at 
first  with  a  rotary  motion  until  the  curd  which  forms 
is  entirely  dissolved,  and  then  completed  with  a 
vigorous  shake  sideways.  A  large  amount  of  heat  is 
evolved  by  the  chemical  action,  and  the  liquid  changes 
gradually  to  a  dark  brown. 


WHIRLING    THE    BOTTLES. 

The  test  bottles  containing  the 
mixture  of  milk  and  acid  should 
be  placed  in  the  machine  directly 
after  the  acid  is  added.  An  even 
number  of  bottles  should  be 
whirled  at  the  same  time,  and 
they  should  be  placed  in  the 
wheel  in  pairs  opposite  to  each 
other,  so  that  the  equilibrium  of 
the  apparatus  will  not  be  dis- 
,  turbed.  When  all  the  test  bot- 

tles  are  placed  in  the  apparatus, 

upQn 


V 


Fig.11-IMPROVED  ACID  BURETTE. 

jacket,  and  the  machine  turned  at  the  proper  speed 
for  about  five  minutes.  The  test  should  never  be 
made  without  the  cover  being  placed  upon  the  jacket, 
as  this  not  only  prevents  the  cooling  of  the  bottles 
when  they  are  whirled,  but,  in  case  of  the  breakage  of 
bottles,  may  protect  the  face  and  eyes  of  the  operator 
from  injury  by  pieces  of  glass  or  hot  acid. 


Artificial  Mothers^  Milk.  107 

FILLING    THE    BOTTLES   WITH    HOT    WATKR. 

After  the  bottles  have  been  whirled,  they  should  be 
filled  immediately,  with  boiling  water,  to  the  neck, 
and  then  whirled  again  for  about  one  minute,  and 
more  water  added  to  bring  the  fat  into  the  graduated 
neck,  A  third  whirl  of  about  one  minute  is  given  to 
bring  all  of  the  fat  into  the  neck  where  it  can  be 
measured. 

MEASURING   THE    FAT. 

The  fat  should  be  measured  im- 
mediately after  the  whirling  is  com- 
pleted, before  it  has  cooled  to  a 
point  where  it  does  not  flow  freely. 
If  many  tests  are  to  be  made  at  the 
same  time,  better  results  are  ob- 
tained by  setting  the  bottles  in  hot 
water  to  keep  the  fat  in  liquid  con- 
dition  until  the  readings  can  be  Fig  13 

taken.  To  measure  the  fat,  hold  SMALL  WHIRLING  MACHINE. 
the  bottle  in  a  perpendicular  position  with  the  scale 
on  a  level  with  the  eye,  and  observe  the  divisions 
which  mark  the  highest  and  the  lowest  limits  of  the 
fat.  The  difference  between  these  gives  the  per  cent. 
of  fat  directly.  The  readings  should  be  taken  to  half 
divisions  of  the  scale,  or  to  one-tenth  per  cent. 

The  readings  may  be  made  with  less  liability  of 
error  by  measuring  the  length  of  the  column  of  fat 
with  a  pair  of  dividers,  one  point  of  which  is  placed 
at  the  bottom  and  the  other  at  the  upper  limit  of  the 


108  A  Neiv  Dairy  Industry. 

fat.  The  dividers  are  then  removed,  and  one  point 
placed  at  the  0  mark  of  the  scale  on  the  bottle  used, 
the  other  will  be  at  the  per  cent,  of  fat  in  the  milk  ex- 
amined. 

Skim  milk,  buttermilk  and  whey  are  tested  in  the 
same  general  manner  as  full  milk,  except  that  skim 
milk  and  buttermilk  require  about  one-fourth  more  acid 
and  should  be  whirled  about  two  minutes  longer  than 
whole  milk,  while  whey  requires  only  about  two- 
.  thirds  as  much  acid  as  milk.  Where  the  amount  of 


Fig.  14-STEAM  TURBINE  WHIRUNG  MACHINE. 

fat  is  less  than  two-tenths  per  cent,  it  often  assumes  a 
globular  form  instead  of  a  uniform  layer  across  the 
tube ;  where  this  occurs,  the  per  cent,  of  fat  must  be 
estimated.  In  doing  this,  it  must  be  remembered 
that  any  appearance  of  fat  in  the  tube  indicates  as 
much  as  .05  per  cent.  It  is  nof  possible,  with  the 
Babcock  test,  to  detect  less  than  .05  per  cent,  of  fat. 

CREAM. 

Special  bottles  are  provided  for  testing  cream.    The 
operation  is  the  same  as  with  milk,  except  that  the 


Artificial  Mothers*  Milk.  109 

cream  adhering  to  the  pipette  should  be  rinsed  into 
the  bottle  with  a  little  water,  and,  after  the  acid  is 
added,  the  bottle  should  be  allowed  to  stand  for 
about  five  minutes  before  it  is  whirled.  During  this 
time  it  should  be  shaken  occasionally,  and  if  the  room 
is  cold  the  bottle  should  be  kept  hot  by  setting  in  hot 
water. 

Cream  may  be  tested  in  the  ordinary  bottles  by  di- 
viding the  test  sample,  as  nearly  as  can  be  judged  by 
the  eye,  into  three  bottles.  The  pipette  is  then  rinsed 
twice  into  the  three  bottles  with  water,  and  the  test 
made  as  with  milk,  the  readings  upon  the  three  bot- 
tles being  added  together  for  the  per  cent,  of  fat. 

Where  a  balance  is  available,  the  best  method  is  to 
weigh  the  cream  into  an  ordinary  test  bottle,  taking 
about  five  grammes  for  a  test,  and  adding  to  this 
about  12  c.  c.  of  water.  The  test  is  then  made  as 
with  milk,  the  readings  being  multiplied  by  eighteen 
and  the  product  divided  by  the  number  of  grammes 
of  cream  taken  for  the  per  cent,  of  fat. 

Condensed  milk  is  tested  in  the  same  manner  as 
cream.  The  sample  should  always  be  weighed,  as 
these  milks  are  usually  too  thick  to  be  accurately 
measured  with  a  pipette. 

As  we  may  surmise,  the  fat  test  is  one  of  greatest 
importance  towards  insuring  an  unvarying  quality  in 
the  normal  milk.  The  result  of  the  tests  should  be 
kept  on  record,  as  they  are  of  value  to  indicate  the 
influence  which  changes  in  the  feed  have  on  the  per- 
centage of  fat  in  the  milk. 


110  A  ATcw  Dairy  Industry. 

Besides  the  fat  test,  it  becomes  necessary,  periodi- 
cally, to  make  a  test  of  the  acidity  of  the  milk  to  be 
used  ;  this  is  more  particularly  the  case  in  hot  weather, 
or  where  ensilage  is  fed,  or  any  apprehension  exists 
as  to  the  sweetness  of  the  fodder  or  pasturage.  For 
the  acid  test,  50  cub.  cent,  of  milk  are  placed  in  a 
glash  dish,  2CC  of  hydrate  of  sodium  and  two  or  three 
drops  of  phenolphtalein  added  and  mixed  together. 
To  this  we  now  cautiously  add  common  sulphuric 
acid,  by  means  of  a  graduated  pipette,  constantly 
stirring,  until  a  decidedly  pink  tinge  appears  in  the 
milk.  When  this  has  set  in  the  accurate  quantity  of 
acid  added  in  c.  c.  is  ascertained,  and  we  call  every 
cubic  centimeter  added  one  degree  of  acidity.  In 
this  way  milk  to  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  nor- 
mal milk  may  contain  no  more  than  three  degrees  of 
acidity,  any  excess  of  this  quantity  will  tend  to  spoil 
the  milk — to  make  it  curdle.  Milk  that  shows  4.5 
degrees  of  acidity  is  unfit  for  the  manufacture  of 
normal  milk.  Milk  which  has  turned  sour  shows 
2G.5  degrees  of  acidity  ;  butter  may  show  15  degrees. 

If  wre  have  found  our  milk  sweet  we  now7  proceed 
to  the  separation  of  the  cream  from  the  skim  milk, 
conducting  the  milk  into  a  tempering  vat  where  it 
attains  a  temperature  of  80°  F.  The  separator  is 
graduated  in  a  manner  to  tiirn  out  one-third  of  the 
volume  of  the  milk  as  cream  and  two-thirds  as  skim 
milk.  This  must  strictly  be  adhered  to,  as  on  this 
division  all  subsequent  calculations  are  based.  After 
the  separator  gets  first  started, .four  or  five  gallons  of 


Artificial  Mothers*  Milk. 


Ill 


the  skim  milk  are  caught  in  a  separate  vessel  and  put 
aside,  to  be  passed  through  the  separator  again  with 


Fig.  15-De  LAVAL  STEAM  TURBINE  CREAM  SEPARATOR. 

the  last  of  the  milk.     Any  good  separator  may  be 
used ;  where,   however,   larger    quantities    are    to    be 


A  Neiv  Dairy  Industry. 

produced,  the  use  of  the  steam  turbine  separator  is  to 
be  recommended,  and  the  dc  Laval  has  here  given 
universal  satisfaction.  When  all  milk  has  passed 
through  the  separator  the  scales  are  used  to  ascertain 
if  the  separation  has  been  effected  in  the  prescribed 
proportions,  returning  some  of  the  skim  milk  to  the 
cream  if  this  latter  had  not  come  up  to  one-third  of 
the  entire  quantity. 

The  percentage  of  fat  to  be  given  to  the  normal 
milk  is  three  per  cent.,  or  one  hundred  pounds  of 
milk  should  contain  three  hundred  units  of  fat ;  a 
richer  milk  will  therefore  have  to  be  reduced  by  the 
addition  of  skim  milk,  or  by  the  retention  of  a  por- 
tion of  the  cream  ;  a  milk  poor  in  fat  will  have  to  be 
enriched  by  the  addition  of  cream,  or  by  the  reten- 
tion of  part  of  the  skim  milk.  As  an  example  :  We 
wish  to  use  200  pounds  of  milk  testing  4.2  per  cent, 
of  fat ;  we  separate  this  into  . 

SO.O  pds.  cream  173.4  pds.  skim  milk. 

As  we  wish  our  normal  milk  to  contain  but  3  per 
cent  of  fat,  we  must  find  out  how  much  of  this  cream 
will  have  to  be  returned  to  the  skim  milk  to  result  in 
a  milk  of  the  desired  percentage. 

4.2  :  3  —  S0.6  :  x 

3  X  860 

=  61. 8  pds. 
42 

The  reverse  will  l:e  the  case  where  milk  is  found 
to  be  below  the  required  standard  of  fat  percentage. 


Artificial  Mother^  Milk.  118 

The  cream  vessel  is  now  covered,  placed  in  a  cold 
water  bath  and  put  out  of  the  way  while  we  proceed 
to  extract  the  excess  of  paracasein  from  the  skim 
milk,  a  process  in  which  15  per  cent,  of  the  original 
weight  of  the  skim  milk  is  lost,  and  which  is  an  item 
to  be  taken  into  account  when  making  calculations 
for  fixed  quantities  required.  Tables  of  figures  have 
been  prepared  to  show  the  quantities  of  cream  and 
skim  milk  with  reference  to  the  different  percentage 
of  fat  and  the  loss  of  paracasein  for  the  preparation 
of  both  grades  of  milk. 

We  may  call  to  mind  what  has  been  previously  said 
on  the  simple  mixtures  of  milk,  cream,  water  and 
milk  sugar,  which  do  good  service  to  older  infants, 
when  properly  prepared,  sbut  are  not  adapted  for  con- 
sumption by  the  new-born  babe  ;  because  the  albumen 
in  them  is  administered,  principally,  in  the  form  of 
cow  casein,  which  latter  will,  according  to  the  ex- 
periences of  Biedert,  continually  be  accompanied  by 
deleterious. effects,  even  if  its  form  of  coagulation  has 
been  somewhat  changed  by  the  manipulation  it  will 
go  through  in  this  process. 

The  more  recent  elementary  analysis  of  Wroblewsky 
seems  to  prove,  without  doubt,  that  a  most  distinct  dif- 
ference exists  between  cow  casein  and  human  casein. 
If  the  diluting  of  cow's  milk  is  carried  to  a  point 
where  only  one  per  cent,  of  casein  is  left  in  the  milk— 
the  limit  of  quantity  which  the  infant's  stomach 
will  endure — then  there  is  a  deficiency  of  albumen  and 
salts.  Corresponding  to  the  large  admixture  of  water, 


114  A  New  Dairy  Industry. 

we  also  find  it  necessary  to  give  a  heavy  dose  of  milk 
sugar,  by  which  the  costs  of  the  manufacture  would 
be  greatly  enhanced.  By  some,  it  has  been  tried  to 
substitute  the  cheaper  cane  sugar,  but  this  has  proved 
a  failure  on  account  of  its  greater  propensity  to  turn 
acid  in  the  infant's  stomach,  and  because  milk  sugar 
possesses  special  properties  of  the  greatest  importance, 
to  ignore  which  would  be  equivalent  to  endangering 
the  reliability  of  the  entire  process  of  turning  cow's 
milk  into  artificial  mothers'  milk.  The  chemical  and 
physiological  action  of  milk  sugar  on  the  organism 
cannot  be  substituted  by  either  maltose,  glucose  or 
cane  sugar.  To  imitate  nature — an  ever  reliable 
practice  in  similar  cases — has  here  not  proved  to  be 
an  effective  argument,  as  milk  sugar  plays  but  an  in- 
significant part  in  the  customary  nourishment  of  in- 
fants, while  the  most  unnatural  admixtures :  the 
starchy  matter  contained  in  so-called  infant  foods,  are 
frequently  resorted  to.  So.vhlct  found  the  absolute 
necessity  of  milk  sugar  to  the  infant  founded  on  the 
following  differences  between  it  and  other  sugars  : 

1.  Excepting  cane  sugar,  which  for  other  reasons 
cannot  be  considered,  milk  sugar  is  the  only  kind  of 
sugar  which,  when  heated  with   nitric  acid,  produces 
slimy  acid,  while  the  other  sugars  produce  sugar  acid. 

2.  Cane  sugar,  maltose  and  glucose  disintegrate  in 
the  presence   of  common  alcoholic   ferment  into  al- 
cohol  and   carbonic  acid ;    milk    sugar    remains    un- 
changed, and  resists  to  all  fermentative  influences  by 
far  more  powerfully. 


Artificial  Mothers'  Milk.  115 

3.  Milk  sugar  possesses  only  about  one-third  of  the 
sweetness  of  cane  sugar  ;  we  are,  therefore,  able  to  mix 
three  times  the  quantity  to  a  nourishment  without  pro- 
ducing a  repugnant  sweetness. 

4.  It  is  not  transformed   like  the  other  sugars  into 
glykogen,  has  an  enhanced  combustability  and  passes 
easily  into  the  urine. 

5.  Maltose   and   cane  sugar  are   the   most  rapidly 
absorbed,  milk  sugar  but  very  slowly ;  70  to  80  per 
cent,  of  the  former  in  one  hour,  of  milk  sugar  but  20 
to  40  per  cent.,  depending  on  the  strength  of  solution. 

6.  The  accumulation  of  the  rapidly  absorbed  sugars 
in   the  blood  produces  very  notable   changes   in  the 
functions  of  the  apparatus  of  circulation,  which  per- 
sist until  the  blood  is  relieved  of  this  excess  of  sugar. 
The  pressure  of  blood  is  heightened,   the  vessels  be- 
come expanded,  the  pulse  is  augmented,  circulation 
is  so  much  accelerated   that  double   the  quantity  of 
blood  passes  through  the  same  vein  during  a  meas- 
ured span  of  time.       Milk   sugar    produces    quite    a 
unique  effect  on  the  circulation  ;  although  the  blood 
pressure  is  equally  enhanced  if  given   in  large  doses, 
yet  the  pulse  is  not  accelerated,  but  rather  diminished, 
producing  an  ample  systole.     The  heightened  pres- 
sure of  blood  is  caused  by  the   irritating  effect  the 
other  sugars  have  on  the  heart  and  its  vessels ;  the 
diminishing  of  the   pulse  is  ascribed  to  the  specific 
influence  of  the  milk  sugar  on  the  checking  appar- 
atus of  the  heart. 

7.  While  the  other  sugars  are  nearly  entirely  ab- 


110  A  New  Dairy  Industry, 

sorbed  through  the  stomach,  there  will  always  pass 
a  considerable  quantity  of  the  milk  sugar  to  the  colon, 
where  it  invariably  produces  a  heightened  secretion 
of  slime  and  gall,  and  by  this  means  acts  slightly 
purgative.  It  is  particularly  to  this  specific  effect  of 
milk  sugar  that  attention  should  be  drawn,  as  it 
makes  milk  sugar  not  only  an  invaluable,  but  also  a 
most  necessary,  admixture  to  artificial  mothers'  milk. 

Kehrer  had  conceived  the  idea  of  producing  an 
infants'  milk  by  mixing  the  whey  produced  in  cheese 
factories  with  cream,  but  after  exhaustive  experi- 
ments this  proved  to  be  unsatisfactory,  on  account  of 
such  whey  being  too  poor  in  albuminoids,  besides 
being  too  strongly  polluted  with  bacteria,  having  ac- 
quired a  pronounced  change  in  taste  and  commonly 
possessing  an  amount  of  acidity  by  far  in  excess  of 
any  to  be  tolerated  in  the  manufacture  of  normal  in- 
fants' milk.  In  a  like  manner  it  has  been  tried  to 
make  use  of  cream  procured  from  creameries,  but 
with  equally  unsatisfactory  results,  this  cream  being 
strongly  infected  with  bacteria,  and  the  butter  fats 
so  strongly  influenced  by  improper  feeding  that  the 
palatability  and  keeping  qualities  of  the  normal  milk 
are  greatly  impaired.  These  experiments  have,  how- 
ever, proved  invaluable,  by  showing  the  way  on  which 
the  desired  end  might  be  reached. 

If  we  treat  fresh,  clean  cow's  milk  by  a  properly 
prepared  rennent  ferment,  observing  proper  tempera- 
ture, time  of  acting,  and  special  method  of  stirring, 
we  are  able  to  produce  an  albuminous  milk  serum, 


Artificial  Mothers'  Milk.  117 

because  this  ferment  has  dissolved  the  casein  into 
paracasein  and  soluble  peptonic  whey-protein,  of 
which  only  the  first  named  is  expelled  as  a  stiff  curdled 
sediment. 

All  the  albumen  of  the  milk  and  all  of  the  milk 
sugar  are  retained  in  this  serum,  and  if  our  milk  has 
been  produced  under  observation  of  all  precautions 
herein  enumerated,  it  will  be  of  an  agreeable,  sweetish 
taste  and  its  acidity  so  small  that  the  albumen — which 
in  common  whey,  separates  at  158°  F.,  in  consequence 
of  the  higher  acidity — remains  incorporated  up  to 
much  higher  temperatures,  so  that  an  effective  sterili- 
zation is  possible  without  damaging  the  nutritive 
qualities  of  the  proteids.  This  is  a  delicate  process, 
furnishing,  however,  a  milk  serum  containing  one 
per  cent,  of  albumen,  composed  of  easily  digestible 
albuminoids,  the  whey  protein  and  lacto  protein,  and, 
besides,  five  per  cent,  of  milk  sugar.  If  this  fluid  is 
condensed  to  four-fifths  of  its  volume  by  the  use  of  a 
vacuum  pan,  then  we  attain  1.25  per  cent,  of  albumen 
and  0.25  per  cent,  of  milk  sugar.  By  the  addition  of 
cream  we  attain  one-half  per  cent,  of  casein  and  from 
3  to  3.5  per  cent,  of  fat,  a  combination  analogous  in 
every  respect  to  mothers'  milk. 

The  percentage  of  ashes  and  salts  is,  undoubtedly, 
somewhat  higher  in  this  prepared  milk  than  in 
mothers'  milk,  although  by  the  action  of  the  ferment 
the  percentage  of  salts  has  been  reduced.  Normal 
milk  shows  an  excess  of  0.3  per  cent,  of  salts  over 
mothers'  milk,  but  elaborate  experiments  have  shown 


11<S  A   New  Dairy  Industry. 

that  this  excess  is  not  only  harmless,  but,  on  the  con- 
trary, entailing  an  augmented  percentage  of  phosphate 
of  lime,  and  therefore  welcome  in  the  systems  of  all 
infants  disposed  to  attacks  of  scrofula,  rachitis  and 
kindred  ailments.  The  ferment  employed  in  the  ex- 
traction of  casein  is  prepared  by  a  process  exclusively 
adapted  to  laboratory  work,  and  may,  therefore,  be  ad- 
vantageously left  to  those,  who  are  by  training  better 
fitted,  to  attend  and  watch  a  process  which  requires  a 
number  of  scientific  appliances  to  produce  an  article 
of  unvarying  strength  and  composition.  It  is  this 
part  of  the  manufacture  only  which  is  not  in  the 
hands  of  the  dairyman,  but  experience  has  shown 
that  this  is  rather  an  advantage  than  otherwise. 
Without  taking  into  consideration  the  time  it  would 
take  the  dairyman  to  produce  the  ferment  for  his  own 
use,  the  production  in  the  laboratory  on  a  large  scale 
can  be  effected  with  much  greater  economy.  The 
properties  of  this  ferment  are  : 

1.  That  it  imparts  to  the  milk  the  slight  alkaline 
reaction  which  we  note  in  the  woman's  milk,  and 
which,  undoubtedly,  must  be  considered  as  an  essen- 
tial factor  in  the  process  of  digestion. 

'1.  That  it  dissolves  a  part  of  the  casein  ;  so  that 
we  attain  to  an  equal  amount  of  digestible  albumen, 
the  same  as  in  woman's  milk. 

o.  That  it  curdles  the  paracasein  and  transforms 
the  remaining  casein  into  the  form  or  fine  flaked 
curdling.  The  strength  of  the  ferment  is  continually 
tested  and  the  quantity  required  for  curdling  is  clearly 


Artificial  Mothers'  Milk. 


119 


printed  on  every  package.  We  now  proceed  to  the 
operation  of  curdling.  The  skim  milk  is  placed  in  a 
vat  especially  constructed  for  the  purpose,  fitted  with 
enveloping  steam  jacket  and  heated  104°  F.;  the 
ferment  is  now  added  in  the  exact  proportion  which 
the  strength  of  the  ferment  calls  for;  the  milk  is 


Fig.  16-CURDLING  VAT. 

now  stirred  for  three  minutes  ;  the  vat  is  then  covered 
and  left  for  fifteen  minutes,  when  the  stirring  is  re- 
newed with  a  paddle  until  curdling  sets  in,  which 
should  take  place  about  thirty  minutes  after  adding 
the  ferment.  Instantly  after  curdling  has  taken  place 


120  A  Nc7c  Dairy  Industry. 

steam  is  turned  into  the  steam  jacket  and  the  tem- 
perature brought  up  to-1 122°  F.,  where  it  is  kept 
during  the  time  necessary  to  remove  the  lump  of 
paracasein,  which  has  now  formed  on  the  bottom  of 
the  vat,  and  which  is  effected  by  means  of  sieves  fit- 
ting snugly  into  the  bottom  of  the  vat.  The 
remaining  whey  will  be  found  with  agreeable,  sweet 
taste  but  must  not  retain  any  sediment  of  casein. 
The  vat  is  now  heated  to  1(>7°  F.  and  kept  at  this 
temperature  for  forty-five  minutes  to  deaden  the  effect 
of  any  ferment  remaining,  great  care  being  required 
not  to  exceed  this  temperature,  or  the  albuminoids 
will  become  indigestible.  At  this  stage  of  proceed- 
ings it  is  well  to  call  to  mind  that  no  utensils  or 
vessels  must  now  be  dipped  into  the  serum,  or  whey, 
which  previously  have  been  used  in  fresh  milk  or 
cream.  After  the  elapse  of  the  forty-five  minutes  of 
heating,  the  serum  is  now  returned  and  mixed  with 
the  cream  previously  separated  from  it,  until  it 
appears  as  one  homogenous  fluid.  Where  condensing 
is  not  applied  to  highten  the  percentage  of  milk  sugar 
this  latter  must  now  be  added  (five  grammes  per  pound'), 
thoroughly  mixed  with  the  normal  milk,  which  is  at 
once  bottled  and  ready  for  the  sterilzing  apparatus. 

Before  following  this  milk  to  sterilizing,  we  turn 
to  the  manufacture  of  the  second  grade  of  normal 
milk.  The  fresh  milk  is  separated  into  one-third 
part  cream  and  two-thirds  parts  skim  milk,  the  same 
as  for  the  first  grade,  and  the  calculation  of  fat  per- 
centage performed  in  the  same  manner.  The  casein 


Artificial  Mother  J  Milk.  121 

in  this  skim  milk  is,  however,  not  extracted,  but  only 
reduced  by  removing-  one-half  of  the  entire  quantity 
of  skim  milk  and  replacing  it  by  pure  water,  with 
the  addition  of  twelve  grammes  of  milk  sugar  per 
pound  of  milk  manufactured. 

As  to  the  advisability  of  using  milk  rich  in  fat,  or 
such  which  is  less  so,  will  depend  on  the  profitable 
use  the  remaining  cream  or  skim  milk  can  be  put  to. 
Where  an  equal  demand  exists  for  both  grades  of  the 
normal  milk,  there  will,  when  using  a  milk  with  less 
than  3.:>  per  cent,  of  fat,  always  remain  a  surplus  of 
skim  milk.  In  the  manufacture  of  grade  I.  alone, 
there  will  nearly  always  be  a  surplus  of  cream,  while 
in  the  manufacture  of  grade  II.  alone,  there  will 
always  remain  on  hand  a  surplus  of  skim  milk.  As 
a  general  direction,  it  may,  however,  be  laid  down 
that  milk,  to  be  profitably  used  up,  should  not  fall 
below  three  per  cent,  of  butter  fat. 

If  bottles  of  different  color  are  not  used  for  the  I. 
and  II.  grades  of  the  milk,  then  proper  precaution 
must  be  provided  so  that  bottles  with  different  con- 
tents do  not  get  mixed  in  sterilizing.  Various  bottling 
devices  and  apparatus  are  in  use — a  very  good  one  is 
made  by  Boldt  &  Vogel,  of  Hamburg. 

The  bottle  to  be  used  is  shown  in  Fig.  ID;  it  is 
manufactured  in  three  sizes,  to  contain  four,  seven 
and  ten  ounces  each  of  "normal  milk."  As  soon  as 
filled,  the  rubber  caps  are  drawn  on  the  bottles  by 
hands  scrupulously  clean. 

The  innumerable  changes  that  have  been  brought 


122 


A   New  Dairy  Industry. 


out  in  sterilizing  machines,  during-  the  last  few  years, 
are,  in  themselves,  proof  of  the  general  deficiency  of 
these  machines.  I  shall  draw  attention  to  the  one 
that  has  given  great  satisfaction  in  sterilizing  the 
normal  infants'  milk.  It  is  built  to  my  order  by  the 
Dairyman's  Supply  Co.,  of  Philadelphia,  and  shown 


jljlllj 


Fig.  17-AUTOMATIC  BOTTLING  APPARATUS. 

in  Fig.  IS.  A  is  the  bed  plate  with  heavy  flange  and 
rubber  packing,  on  to  which  the  hood  or  dome  I>  is 
lowered  and  securely  fastened  by  clamps  all  around. 
D  is  an  upright  metal  tube  carrying  the  shelves  or 
plates  C,  on  which  the  milk  bottles  are  placed.  These 
shelves  are  adjustable  to  different  height  and  distance 
from  each  other  to  accommodate  different  sizes  of 


Artificial  Mothers'  Milk. 


bottles.  E  is  a  metal  arm  or  bracket  to  carry  the 
bottle,  into  which  the  thermometer  clips  to  register 
the  temperature  of 
the  milk  in  the  bot- 
tles during  steriliza- 
tion. A  second  ther- 
mometer, F,  is  ne- 
cessary to  show  the 
gradual  heating  of 
apparatus.  This  is 
a  most  necessaiy  pre- 
caution, w  i  t  h  o  u  t 
which,  considerable 
breakage  of  bottles 
is  unavoidable.  The 
steam  enters  at  S, 
ascending  by  the 
central  tube  D,  and 
passes  out  on  to  the 
shelves  by  numerous 
holes.  Through  T 
cold  air  can  be  forced 
into  the  apparatus, 
this  tube  connecting 
with  the  ice  house. 
G  is  an  exhaust  pipe 
for  carrying  off  the 

,        ,        ,        .  Fig-  18-BLACK  FOREST  STERILIZER. 

air  at  the  beginning 

of  the  operation,  and  is  used  again  later  when   the 

required  heat  and  pressure  have  been  attained,  so  that 


124 


A  Neiv  Dairy  Industry. 


a  continuous  circulation  of  steam  may  be  kept  up  in 
the  apparatus.  A  rubber  tube  is  fastened  to  the  end 
of  G  and  carried  into  a  vessel  with  water  to  condense 
the  escaping  steam.  H  is  the  safety  valve.  I,  the 
steam  gauge.  The  bed  plate  is  made  concave,  with 
an  outlet,  K,  to  carry  off  the  condensing  water  and 
milk  that  may  accummulate  from  breakage.  The 


Fig.  19-MILK  BOTTLES  IN  CARRIER  READY  FOR  STERILIZING. 

shelves  are  slightly  convex  for  the  same  reason.  The 
bottles  are  placed  in  wire  carriers,  six  of  which  fill 
one  of  the  shelves  of  the  sterilizer.  They  are  not 
downright  necessary,  but  will  always  be  found  a  great 
convenience  and  a  saving  in  time  and  labor.  A  carrier 
is  shown  in  Fig.  ID. 

The  duration  of  heating  and  cooling  periods,  which 
together  form  one  process  of  sterilization,  are  the  fol- 
lowing :  One  heating  to  212°  for  thirty  minutes,  then 


Artificial  Mothers'  Milk.  125 

keeping  for  three  hours  at  95°,  then  heating  to  "212° 
for  another  half  hour,  then  cooling  to  04°  for  ten 
hours,  then  a  final  heating  to  212°  for  forty-five  min- 
utes, and  the  cooling  off  to  58°  as  rapidly  as  the 
bottles  will  stand.  This  rule  for  sterilizing  should, 
however,  not  be  considered  as  fixed  and  unchangeable, 
but  it  should  be  left  to  the  investigation  of  the  indi- 
vidual manufacturer  of  normal  infants'  milk  to  find 


B 

Fig.  20-AUTOMATIG  SEALING  CAP. 

out,  by  trials,  if  the  bacteria  predominating  in  his 
milk  will  allow  of  a  modification  or  simplification  of 
the  heating  and  cooling  periods. 

If  the  entrance  of  steam  has  been  properly  tem- 
pered the  breakage  of  bottles  should  be  very  small ; 
if,  in  spite  of  all  care,  there  should  result  more  than 
one  per  cent,  of  breakage,  then  the  glass  is  too  brittle, 
the  bottles  have  been  too  rapidly  cooled  after  manu- 
facturing them.  Before  the  second  heating  is  com- 
menced the  hood  is  lifted  and  the  bottles  are  inspected. 


120  A  Neu<  Dairy  Industry. 

If  the  sealing  by  the  rubber  cap  has  been  effective, 
this  must  be  visible  by  the  top  of  the  cap  showing-  a 
slight  indenture.  At  times,  when  the  heating  has 
been  too  sudden,  the  violent  escape  of  air  from  the 
bottles  may  have  lifted  the  cap  so  that  it  does  not 
show  a  concave ;  such  rubber  caps  must  now  be 
pressed  down  again  firmly  and  the}"  will  come  out 
with  hermetical  sealing  after  the  second  heating. 

The  cooling  must,  every  time,  needs  be  accom- 
plished very  gradually,  else  considerable  breakage 
will  occur. 

The  last  cooling  should  be  to  the  lowest  tempera- 
ture attainable,  a  liberal  supply  of  ice  being  an 
indispensible  requirement  of  the  establishment. 

Immediately  after  withdrawing  the  bottles  from 
the  last  heating  in  the  sterilizer  labels  must  be  pasted 
on  designating  by  their  shape  and  color  the  grade  of 
milk  they  contain. 

RECAPITULATION    OF    MANUFACTURING    PROCESS. 

Cool  the  milk  at  once  after  drawing,  to  40°  P., 
unless  there  are  milkers  enough  to  keep  the  separator 
running  from  the  start. 

Test  the  fat  percentage  and  acidity  of  milk. 

Warm  the  milk  to  8(>°  F.  previous  to  separating. 

Separate  and  weigh  cream  and  skimmed  milk  into 
one-third  and  two-thirds  parts  separately. 

Calculate  the  quantities  of  cream  and  skim  milk 
which  have  to  be  employed  in  the  manufacture  of 
grades  I.  and  II.,  respectively. 


Artificial  Mother vy'  Milk.  127 

Pour  skim  milk  into  the  curdling  vat  and  heat  to 
122°. 

Place  cream  in  cold  water  bath. 

Add  ferment  to  skim  milk  and  let  stand  for  fifteen 
minutes,  then  stir  until  curdling  sets  in,  which  should 
be  about  thirty  minutes  after  time  of  adding  the 
ferment. 

Take  out  the  paracasein  at  once. 

Heat  the  remaining  albuminous  serum  to  107°,  and 
keep  at  this  temperature  for  forty-five  minutes,  well 
covered. 

Add  the  milk  sugar,  thoroughly  stirring,  then  mix 
with  the  cream  and  sterilize. 

For  manufacturing  the  second  grade,  separate  as  for 
grade  I.,  then  divide  skim  milk  as  per  calculation, 
add  water,  milk  sugar  and  cream,  mix  thoroughly, 
bottle  and  sterilize. 

Sterilize  both  grades  equally.    Keep  in  cool  storage. 

From  every  day's  output  of  sterilized  milk  take 
two  sample  bottles,  selecting  one  from  the  upper 
shelf  of  sterilizing  apparatus  and  one  from  lower 
shelf,  and  place  in  bacteria  incubator,  properly  labeled, 
for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  keeping  qualities 
of  the  milk  ;  and,  also,  if  the  sterilizer  works  equally 
weH  at  top  as  it  does  at  the  bottom. 

The  greatest  neatness  and  exactness  should  natur- 
ally prevail  in  executing  all  these  operations,  the  manu- 
facturer bearing  in  mind  that  he  has  guaranteed  his 
product  to  be  of  a  uniform  standard  of  excel  lance, 
and  that  the  normal  infants'  milk  should  show  the 


128 


A   New  Dairy  Industry. 


same  percentage  of  nourishing  ingredients  whenever 
it  may  be  analyzed  by  a  chemist. 

ANALYSIS. 
Human   Normal  Milk,   Normal  Milk, 


Mlik. 

Grade  I. 

Grade  II. 

Per  Cent. 

Per  Cent. 

Per  Cent. 

Fat    .    .    .     . 

.       3.2 

3.0 

3.0 

Casein 

0  75 

1.0 

2.0 

Albumen  .    . 

.      1.0 

0.8 

0.4 

Milk  sugar  . 

.      6.25 

6.0 

5.7 

Salt  . 

0.4 

0.6 

0.5 

3.0 
0.6 

4.8 
0.7 


To  exclude  all  possibility  of  pollution  by  bacteria 

floating  in  the  air  of  the 
laboratory  (the  mixing  or 
the  sterilizing  localities)  a 
disinfection  of  these  prem- 
ises should  periodically  be 
instituted.  The  safest  and 
simplest  way  is  by  apply- 
ing the  fumes  of  formic 
aldehyd,  a  gas  which  kills 
all  floating  bacteria  *or 
germs.  The  lamp  by  which 
these  fumes  are  generated 
is  shown  at  Fig.  21.  The 
vessel  is  filled  with  methyl 
covered  by  a  cap  made  of 
After  lighting  the  \vick  and 
waiting  to  see  the.platina  netting  become  red  hot,  the 
flames  is  blown  out  when  the  glowing  of  the  wire 


Fig.  21-DISiNFECTING  LAMP. 

alcohol  and  the  wick 
platina  wire    netting. 


Artificial  Mothers'  Milk,  129 

netting,  however,  continues  producing  a  gas  known  as 
fumes  of  formic  aldehyd.  As  soon  as  the  fume? 
are  strongly  noticeable  to  our  smelling  organ,  then 
the  desired  effect  has  been  attained.  The  lamp  is  an 
invention  of  Professor  Tollens,  of  Goettingen,  and 
may  be  procured  through  Messrs.  Eimer  &  Amend, 
20.")  Third  avenue,  New  York  city. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

IRormal 


While  .'io  single  part  or  ingredient  of  human  food 
is  of  greater  or  equal  importance  and  merits  in  its 
production  in  a  higher  degree  strict  supervision,  yet 
none  is  consumed  with  a  greater  indifference  as  to  its 
origin  and  pureness  than  cow's  milk. 

Considering  the  great  advancements  in  the  techni- 
cal and  scientific  parts  of  dairying  during  the  last 
decade,  it  is  strange  that  the  production  of  healthful 
infants'  milk  should  have  been  so  signally  neglected. 
There  exists  no  doubt  to-day  but  what  cow's  milk  is 
the  best  natural  substitute  for  mother's  milk  and  the 
best  food  for  a  child  after  weaning.  Even  if  it  were 
true  that  asses'  milk  would  be  preferable,  there  is  too 
little  of  it  ;  or,  if  goat's  milk  were  preferable  on  ac- 
count of  this  animal's  freedom  from  tuberculosis,  yet 
the  disagreeable  taint  peculiar  to  this  milk,  arising 
from  the  capronine  it  contains,  makes  it  undesirable 
to  most  people,  so  that  if  there  are  other  mammals 
whose  milk,  in  its  composition,  comes  closer  to 
mother's  milk,  yet  they  are  not  of  a  kind  either  to 
furnish  a  sufficiency  for  our  needs  or  they  are  not  so 
domesticated  as  to  allow  us  to  draw  it. 

The  conditions  for  the  production  of  a  healthy 
milk  start  with  the  selection  of  the  cow,  the  feed  she 


The  Normal  Dairy.  131 

receives,  the  degree  of  cleanliness  she  is  kept  in, 
and  in  the  treatment  given  at  the  hands  of  the  dairy- 
man. 

As  villages  grew  into  towns  and  towns  into  cities 
there  would  be  found  everywhere  a  class  of  people 
that  offered  encouragement  to  the  maintaining  of 
one  or  more  dairies  in  close  vicinity  to  the  urban  popu- 
lation. In  many  of  the  larger  cities  of  the  old  conti- 
nent dairy  establishments  had  been  maintained  ever 
since  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  and, 
although  they  did  not  furnish  anything  else  but 
raw  milk,  such  as  was  drawn  from  the  cows,  yet  the 
choice  feeding  and  cleanliness  practiced  by  these 
dairies,  which  were  under  the  daily  inspection  of  the 
patrons,  insured  a  degree  of  confidence  in  the  pure- 
ness  of  the  product  which  allowed  the  dairyman  to 
charge  such  prices  for  his  milk  as  would  liberally  re- 
imburse him  for  the  extra  outlay  encountered.  Con- 
ditions allied  to  the  mammoth  growth  of  our  modern 
cities  made  it,  however,  impossible  to  increase  the 
number  of  these  useful  establishments,  or  even  to 
prolong  the  existence  of  the  old  ones.  The  high 
value  of  building  lots  on  one  side,  the  hygienic  ob- 
jections to  the  accummulation  of  manure  and  the 
difficulty  to  dispose  of  this  valuable  residue  at  a  profit 
on  the  other,  have  made  these  dairies  disappear.  The 
control  of  quality  of  the  milk  that  was  then  exercised 
by  the  patrons  now  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
health  authorities  and  the  police,  and  was  extended 
to  all  milk  furnished  for  consumption,  and  it  seemed 


132  A  Neiv  Dairy  Industry. 

as  if  we  had  reached  the  boundary  of  the  influence 
which  we  could  exercise  over  the  quality  of  market- 
able milk.  We  shall  not  here  investigate  what  degree 
of  efficiency  this  control  has  reached  in  general,  or 
if  it  be  sufficient  to  guarantee  a  fair  quality  for  the 
milk  of  general  consumption  ;  as  soon,  however,  as  we 
come  to  the  point  to  look  at  milk  as  a  substitute  for 
mother's  milk,  as  a  food  for  the  new  born-babe,  we 
will  from  the  perusal  of  the  foregoing  chapters  agree 
that  the  present  methods  of  control  are  of  a  glaring 
inefficiency. 

It  is,  however,  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  no  change 
of  method  or  added  severity  will  be  able  to  furnish 
the  guarantee  of  pureness,  w7hich  is  so  desirable,  as  long 
as  milk  has  to  pass  through  so  many  hands  before  it 
reaches  the  little  consumer's  mouth,  and,  that,  at  the 
time  of  its  passing  the  milk  inspector's  test,  it  is  only 
halfway,  as  it  were,  on  the  road  which  is  strewn  with 
possibilities  of  infection.  If  cow's  milk  is  to  be  con- 
sidered the  only  healthy  substitute  for  the  mother's 
breast,  then  our  best  efforts  should  be  directed  to  pro- 
duce this  in  the  best  form  attainable.  That  no  great 
success  has  been  recorded,  hitherto,  in  this  direction 
may  be  largely  attributed  to  the  fact,  that  the  difficul- 
ties to  be  overcome  are  located  in  so  many  different 
fields  of  work.  Most  fanners  and  dairy  engineers  lack 
entirely  the  necessary  medical  knowledge,  and  often, 
also,  the  support  of  the  medical  men,  while  the 
physician,  if  he  manages  to  keep  up  with  the  com- 
plexity of  tasks  before  him,  is  seldom  in  a  position  to 


The  Normal  Dairy.  133 

study  the  agricultural  parts  of  the  question  or  grapple 
with  the  problems  of  technical  dairying. 

Every  branch  of  production  has,  in  its  expanding 
development,  been  forced  to  acknowledge  the  sound- 
ness of  the  principle  of  division  of  labor,  yet  if  we 
recapitulate  what  has  been  said  about  the  necessary 
supervision  of  the  physical  condition  of  the  animals 
furnishing  the  milk,  about  the  necessity  of  sterilizing 
it  immediately  after  drawing,  and  about  the  pollution 
it  is  exposed  to  by  unclean  handling  before  consump- 
tion, we  will  reach  the  conclusion  that  the  production 
of  infants'  milk  is  an  exception  .to  this  rule  of  divi- 
sion of  labor,  and  that  no  guarantee  of  pureness  and 
absolute  healthfulness  can  be  expected  or  given  unless 
the  entire  process  of  production,  from  the  cow's 
mouth  to  the  baby's  bottle,  is  covered  by  one  and  the 
same  responsibility,  and  controlled  in  every  stage  of 
handling  by  those  only  competent  to  do  so  :  the  phy- 
sicians and  the  veterinarian  of  the  neighborhood. 

We  have  seen  that  the  purpose  of  sterilizing  milk 
is  not  only  to  give  it  keeping  qualities  by  the  deaden- 
ing of  all  germs,  also  those  of  disease,  but  by  this  act 
to  make  it  healthy.  The  demand  that  sterilized  milk 
exclusively  should  be  sold  and  used  for  the  nourish- 
ment of  infants  and  children  is  a  just  demand,  be- 
cause the  delicate  texture  of  the  infant's  intestines 
more  easily  gives  \vay  before  the  irritations  produced 
by  the  bacteria  and  their  exsudations.  Besides,  the 
experiences  of  late  years  have  forced  upon  us  the 

painful  conviction  that  not  infrequently  there  lurks 
10 


134  A  New  Dairy  Industry. 

danger  to  health  and  life  in  the  consumption  of  un- 
sterilized  or  raw  milk  by  the  transfer  of  germs  of  dis- 
ease. This  experience  is  to  be  regretted  so  much 
the  more,  as  its  recognition  is  connected  with  the  fact 
that  this  danger  is  inherent  also  to  the  progressive 
development  of  our  dairying  industry,  or  at  least, 
that  it  is  spread  by  it.  There  is  no  doubt  but  that 
creameries,  on  the  plan  of  association,  are  liable  to 
spread  disease  ;  that  the}'  may  be,  and  have  been,  the 
medium  to  cause  smaller  epidemics,  such  as  of  typhus, 
scarlet  fever,  etc.,  even  though  they  possess  all  advan- 
tages of  centralization  and  co-operation,  they  are, 
however,  not  exempt  from  the  great  drawback  which 
adheres  to  all  large  institutions  for  distributing  food- 
stuffs :  the  wholesale  spreading  and  distributing  of 
disease. 

But  we  need,  most  decidedly,  protection  against 
such  danger,  and  need  it  more  particularly  at  such 
times  when  the  spreading  of  a  disease  has  gained 
larger  dimensions,  when  the  epidemic  is  rampant  in 
the  houses  of  our  cities  and  infection  lurks  behind 
every  imaginable  vehicle.  Ever  since  the  study  of 
bacteriology  has  taught  us  that  contageous  diseases 
are  spread  by  bacteria  or  other  low  organisms,  there 
has  been  research  on  foot  to  investigate  the  roads  on 
which  these  infections  move.  Contrary  to  the  former 
belief  that  it  was  the  local  sanitary  condition  alone 
that  promoted  a  spreading,  one  has  now  cast  suspicion 
on  the  foods  and  beverages — water  and  milk — being 


The  Normal  Dairy.  135 

of  universal  consumption  as  the  most  likely  promoters 
of  infection. 

But  even,  if  in  case  of  such  emergencies,  the  local 
authorities  should  be  able  and  competent  to  close  such 
dairies  or  creameries  to  whose  door  the  spreading  of 
a  disease  has  been  brought  home,  this  would  not  con- 
stitute a  reined v,  because  the  damage  has  already  been 
done,  as  it  is  generally  nimbler  footed  than  the  au- 
thorities. It  is,  therefore,  to  the  preventive  measures 
that  we  should  turn  our  attention  and  efforts.  More 
certainly  is  this  true  in  regard  to  milk  when  we  re- 
member that  it  is  apt  to  convey  not  only  the  germs 
of  disease  specific  to  mankind,  but  also  some  of  those 
of  the  bovine  species. 

It  would  lead  us  too  far  from  our  subject  if  we 
should  dwell  on  the  methods  that  might  be  adopted 
for  the  prevention  of  infection  by  the  means  of  milk, 
because,  however  urgently  necessary  they  may  be, 
still  they  might  prove  but  too  liable  in  their  execu- 
tion to  seriously  hamper  and  discourage  an  industry 
which  it  has  taken  the  best  efforts  of  the  farmer,  the 
scientist  and  the  statesman  to  advance  to  the  position 
of  meritorious  efficiency  to  which  we  have  seen  it 
lifted  within  the  last  few  years. 

Recognizing  the  difficulties  that  lay  in  the  way  of 
general  disinfection  of  all  milk  brought  to  market  we 
should  turn  to  the  next  best  expedient  that  offers  :  to 
produce  and  insure  in  the  vicinity  of  every  urban 
population,  and  within  a  distance  of  easy  control,  a 
certain  quantity  of  milk  especially  reserved  and 


lo(>  A  New  Dairy  Inditstry. 

treated  for  the  consumption  of  infants.  This  idea 
has  been  partially  carried  out  in  a  number  of  places 
where  we  hear  of  dairy  farms  furnishing  "  certified 
milk,"  an  article  purporting  to  be  better  and  cleaner 
than  other  milk,  and,  as  long  as  this  certificate  is  one 
of  real  merit  and  not  merely  an  advertisement,  this 
milk  is  decidedly  far  superior  to  one  of  unknown 
origin,  and  its  production  a  token  of  a  very  laudable 
spirit  of  enterprise — a  step  in  the  right  direction- 
even  if  we  know,  from  the  foregoing,  that  such  milk 
can  lay  no  claim  to  being  a  healthy  food  for  infants, 
inasmuch  as  it  lacks  being  brought  closer  in  its  con- 
stituents to  mothers'  milk. 

For  the  above  named  reasons  the  establishment  of 
dairy  farms  for  the  production  of  prepared  infants' 
milk,  in  close  proximity  to  all  urban  populations,  will, 
in  the  near  future,  receive  greater  attention,  not  only 
from  the  farmers,  but,  also,  from  the  medical  frater- 
nity and  the  local  authorities,  from  which  parts  they 
should  receive  all  encouragement  proportionate  to 
the  efficiency  of  their  services. 

The  conditions  to  be  exacted  from  such  an  estab- 
lishment should  bind  the  dairyman  to  the  following 
stipulations  : 

1.  To  use  no  milk  from  any  cow  until  eight  days 
have  elapsed  after  parturition ;    nor    from    any    cow 
six  weeks  before  such  event. 

2.  To  use  no  milk  from  any  cow  in  heat,  off  her 
feed,  sick  or    any  w^ays  deranged,    nor  whilst   being 
treated  with  strongly  acting  internal  medicines. 


The  Normal  Dairy.  137 

:>.  To  keep  sick  animals  in  a  separate  stable,  tended 
by  a  special  attendant. 

4.  To  use  the  milk  of    any  cow  for  no  longer    a 
period  than  seven  months  running. 

•">.  To  keep  parturitant  cows  separated  from  the 
milking  cows. 

(".).  To  keep  neither  horses,  steers  nor  sheep  in  same 
stable  with  milking  cows. 

7.  To  feed  milking  cows  on  the  most  approved 
principles  for  avoiding  acidity  in  milk,  excluding  all 
refuse  feed,  such  as  wet  brewers'  or  distillers'  grains 
or  mash,  adstringent  oilcake  or  swill  of  any  kind,  and 
to  water  cows  with  pure  water. 

5.  To  feed  to  cows  daily  a  proper  allowance  of  salt. 

t>.  To  avoid  all  sudden  changes  in  feeding,  particu- 
larly from  dry  to  green  fodder  and  back,  never  to 
pasture  milking  cows  but  on  artificial  pasture  of 
clovers  and  grasses,  and  to  avoid  all  kind  of  feed  or 
fodder  having  a  laxative  effect. 

10.  To  keep  cows  scrupulously  clean  in  comforta- 
ble, well  ventilated  stables,  exercised,  well  bedded  and 
kindly  treated. 

1.1.  To  exclude  from  the  milk  the  first  five  strip- 
pings  out  of  each  teat  at  every  milking. 

1  '2.  To  keep  all  milk  free  from  any  and  all  chemi- 
cal admixture  or  adulteration,  such  as  salt,  borax, 
salicylic  acid  or  others. 

13.  To  keep  no  manure  pile  in  close  proximity  of 
stables. 

14.  To  enforce  utmost  cleanliness  from  all  persons 


loS  A  New  Dairy  Industry. 

engaged  in  milking,  and  handling  milk,  and  to 
enforce  strictest  abstinence  from  the  use  of  tobacco 
and  liquor  from  all  persons  engaged  in  drawing,  hand- 
ling, preparing,  or  distributing  milk. 

15.  To  stop  delivery  of  milk  or  collection  of  empty 
vessels    to  and  from    all    premises    where    infectious 
disease  is  known  to  exist. 

16.  To   superintend  with    untiring    vigilance    the 
cleansing  and  sterilizing  by  steam,  hot  water  and  soda 
of  all  utensils  and  apparatus  used  in  handling,  prepar- 
ing and  conveying  milk. 

17.  To  engage  the  services  of  a  competent  veteri- 
narian for  the  frequent  inspection  and  investigation 
of  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  milk  cows,  and  fur- 
nish clean  bill  of  health  every  month  from  the  veteri- 
narian for  all  cows  whose  milk  is  used  in  preparing 
the  normal  infants'  milk. 

18.  To  facilitate  in  every  way,  in  all  premises  and 
at  all  times,  the  thorough  inspection  of  the  entire  es- 
tablishment by  members  of  a  committee  of  the  medi- 
cal profession,  or  the  local  board  of  health. 

It  will  be  conceded  that  the  proposed  conditions  for 
the  production  of  pure  milk  can  easily  be  fulfilled 
without  incurring  great  expense,  and  this  is  a  require- 
ment that  should  not  be  lost  sight  of,  for,  in  fixing 
these  stipulations,  a  reasonable  limit  to  precautionary 
measures  must  be  admitted,  without  which,  the  con- 
sequent considerable  increase  in  cost  of  production 
would  tell  on  the  price  of  the  milk,  tend  to  put  it 
beyond  the  reach  of  the  poorer  classes,  and  thus  frtis- 


The  Normal  Dairy.  189 

trate  to  a  considerable  degree  the  good  for  which  the 
establishment  had  been  created.  It  is  well  to  remem- 
ber that  conditions  which  might  appear  ideal  to  the 
medical  mind  may  be  absolutely  impracticable  of  ex- 
ecution. 

However  plain  the  detrimental  effects  of  common 
impure  milk  may  be  to  the  life  in  general,  and  to  that 
of  infants  in  particular,  the  entire  bearing  of  the 
matter  and  the  importance  of  ameliorating  such  con- 
ditions is  not  recognized  by  the  masses  of  the  popu- 
lation, nor  wTill  the  public  be  found  willing  to  pay  a 
higher  price  for  infants'  milk  as  long  as  the  entire 
visible  amelioration  would  consist  in  a  new-fangled 
stopper  on  the  bottle  or  in  a  colored  label  around  its 
neck. 

The  subtelty  and  the  minuteness  of  the  noxious 
germs  contained  in  ordinary  cow's  milk,  and  the  im- 
possibility of  furnishing  a  daily  certificate  of  their 
deadening  or  removal,  based  on  the  finding  of  a 
chemical  and  a  microscopical  investigation,  make  this 
business,  in  a  great  degree,  one  of  confidence  placed 
by  the  public  in  the  honesty  of  the  dairyman.  But 
experience  has  shown  that  even  the  greatest  honesty 
on  the  part  of  the  dairyman  and  his  skill  in  steriliz- 
ing is  not  in  all  cases  sufficient  to  insure  an  untainted 
milk  to  an  infant,  because  all  precautions  are  futile  if 
the  sterilized  milk,  prior  to  its  consumption,  is  left  to 
the  manipulation  of  careless  and  unreliable  persons. 

This  is  one  of  the  reasons  why  infants'  milk  should 
be  furnished  in  hermetically  closed  small  bottles  of  a 


140  A  Neu>  Dairy  Industry. 

shape  to  allow  the  adjusting  of  the  feeding  nipple 
immediately  after  removing  the  stopper  shortly  before 
warming  and  using  the  milk.  Although  small  steril- 
izing apparatus  exist,  and  may  be  bought,  yet,  for 
reasons  previously  demonstrated,  they  can  by  no 
means  be  considered  as  giving  the  same  security  of  a 
dairying  and  sterilizing  establishment,  and  German 
scientists  agree  that  the  manufacture  of  infants'  milk 
cannot  be  conducted  with  any  degree  of  success  in 
the  household  of  the  consumer,  or  by  parties  not  per- 
fectly versed  in  the  functions  or  properties  of  the  dif- 
ferent ingredients  and  equipped  with  the  most  perfect 
appliances  that  will  insure  the  production  of  an  article 
of  uniform  composition  and  merit. 

Other  reasons  pointing  toward  the  advisability  of 
entrusting  a  larger  establishment  with  the  manufac- 
ture of  infants'  milk  are  that — 

1.  By  the  use  of  the  cream  separator  a  large  percent- 
age of  the  most  noxious  germs  are  retained  in  the  bowl 
of  the  machine,  imbedded  in  the  separator  slime. 

2.  The  percentage  .of    fat  contained  in  the   fresh 
milk,  to  be  converted  into  infants'  milk,  can  be  ascer- 
tained and   regulated   daily   before  and   after    manu- 
facturing the  infants'  milk. 

3.  All  mixtures  are  performed  with  greater  accurate- 
ness  and  precision,  because  everything    is    done    by 
exact  weight   and  measure,  and  not  by  table  or  tea- 
spoonfuls. 

4.  All    mixing,  sterilizing   and   cleansing   is   done 
more  efficiently,  quicker  and  cheaper. 


The  Normal  Dairy.  141 

5.  All  materials  used  are  procured  wholesale,  at  a 
considerable  reduction  in  price,  which  tells  on  the 
price  of  the  milk. 

After  reviewing  the  points  which  could  make  such 
an  establishment,  or  a  number  of  them,  a  desirable 
acquisition  to  the  neighborhood  of  an  urban  popula- 
tion, it  is  but  fair  to  ascertain  if  this  will,  under 
existing  circumstances  and  conditions,  equally  be 
a  desirable  undertaking  for  a  dairy  fanner.  Binding 
himself  to  the  afore  enumerated  clauses,  for  the  con- 
duction of  his  establishment,  he  is  certainly  entitled 
to  the  moral  and  efficient  support  of  the  authorities 
and  the  board  of  health.  The  guarantee  of  pureness, 
which  is  given  to  the  products  of  the  establishment 
by  a  constant  or  periodical  supervision,  is  absolutely 
necessary  to  guard  the  public  from  imposition,  as  well 
as  the  dairyman  from  the  appearance  of  a  spurious 
article,  which  would  at  once  tend  to  destroy  his  un- 
dertaking by  discrediting  normal  infants'  milk 
through  the  rapacity  of  unscrupulous  rival  parties. 
For  the  same  reason,  the  retailing  of  normal  infants' 
milk  should  not  go  through  the  channel  of  the  small 
milk  trade,  but  through  the  establishment  itself, 
through  a  designated  number  of  drug  stores  or  large 
milk  traders.  This  business  is  one  of  confidence, 
because  of  the  difficulty  of  daily  testing  the  pure- 
ness  of  its  products,  it  is,  therefore,  natural  that  it  be 
undertaken  by,  or  conceded  to,  only  such  parties  who — 
apart  from  their  physical  and  financial  ability  to  per- 


142  A  New  Dairy  Industry. 

sonally  superintend  and  foster  it — have  thoroughly 
mastered  the  theoretical  and  technical  parts  of  the 
matter  and  can  command  the  entire  confidence  of  the 
"parties  of  the  second  part."  On  the  other  hand,  it 
would  be  folly  for  a  dairyman  to  undertake  the  fitting 
out  of  a  sterilizing  establishment  without  the  encour- 
agement and  support  just  mentioned  ;  it  seems,  how- 
ever, unnecessary  to  dwell  longer  on  this  subject ; 
wherever  undertaken,  by  the  proper  person  and  with 
the  proper  appliances,  the  advantages  that  may 
accrue  to  the  sanitary  condition  and  the  welfare  of 
the  population  it  would  serve,  have  been  sponta- 
neously recognized.  As  an  instance  I  will  mention 
that  it  is  a  well  established  fact  that  since  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  dairy  of  Mr.  Bolle,  in  the  German 
capital,  the  morality  of  the  infants  has  been  lowered 
twenty-five  per  cent. 

As  to  general  rules  for  the  location  of  such  an  es- 
tablishment, they  will,  in  a  great  measure,  always  be 
govered  by  local  conditions,  it  should,  however,  cer- 
ly  not  be  located  at  a  greater  distance  from  the  popu- 
lation which  consumes  its  products,  than  will  allow  of 
an  easy  supervision  and  rapid  transportation.  This 
distance  will  be  regulated,  in  a  manner,  by  the  value 
of  land  in  the  vicinity  of  the  city  or  town  it  would 
have  to  serve.  The  advantages  which  close  prox- 
imity may  confer  are  entirely  lost  if  the  price  of  the 
milk  has  to  be  raised  to  meet  the  extra  expense  of 
high  rents  on  land,  and  as  long  as  transportation  can 
be  expeditously  carried  on,  there  need  exist  no  other 


The  Normal  Dairy.  143 

limit  to  the  distance  but  that  set  by  the  possibility  of 
effective  medical  control  of  the  establishment. 

As  regards  transportion,  it  is  well  to  remember 
that  bottles  with  normal  milk  must  never  be  filled  to 
the  brim,  as  part  of  the  milk  would  boil  out  during 
sterilization ;  they  will,  therefore,  not  stand  pro- 
tracted shaking  on  rough  roads  as  raw  milk  would, 
because  the  butter  fat  easily  collects  in  the  neck  of 
the  bottle  and  bntters  out. 

In  the  time  of  old  town  dairies,  a  considerable  iii- 


Fig.  22-SIMMONTHAL  SWISS  BULL 

fluence  was  accorded  to  the  breed  of  cattle  which 
should  be  kept  by  such  furnishing  milk  for  infants; 
on  the  old  continent,  Hngland  excepted,  it  was  gen- 
erally believed  that  the  Alpine  breeds  were  the 
healthiest,  and,  therefore,  the  only  proper  breeds  to 
furnish  such  milk  ;  since  we  have,  however,  learned 
to  covert  the  milk  of  any  healthy  cow  into  a  milk, 
which,  in  all  its  nourishing  constituants,  is  identical 
to  the  human  milk,  irrespective  of  the  relative  pro- 
portions contained  thereof  in  cow's  milk,  this  ques- 


144  A  New  Dairy  Industry. 

tion  of  breeds  has  lost  a  great  deal  of  its  importance, 
the  main  requsite  now  being  :  a  healthy  cow. 

The  relation  of  fat  to  casein  and  of  total  percent- 
age of  solids  to  that  of  albumen  is,  however,  a  varia- 
ble quantity  in  the  different  breeds,  and  should  be 
studied  and  taken  into  account  when  planning  the 
manufacture  of  normal  infants'  milk.  The  work  of 
a  number  of  experiment  stations  on  this  line  has  been 
invaluable  in  determining  the  respective  percentages 
in  the  milk  of  the  standard  breeds  of  cattle. 

The  average  composition  found  by  analyses  of 
28,000  samples  of  milk  was  total  solids,  1*2. OS  per 
cent.;  fat,  3.01 ;  solids,  not  fat,  8.77  ;  specific  gravity, 
1.0318.  When  computed  for  an  entire  period  of  lac- 
tation, the  following  figures  were  found  for  the  re- 
spective breeds  : 


The  Normal  Dairy. 


145 


X 

r? 
6 

re 

1 

<  —  t 
n 

C/5 

rc 

•| 

ffi 

C/5 

•  next,  then  casein,  ai 

According  to  the  abo 

Average  

C/5 

rr 

ican  Holderness  

3' 

2 

a 

g 

w 
d 

n> 
cr 

-7 

to 

5 

E 

CO 
GO 

to 

3 

i 

Number  of  i 
Analyses. 

* 

re 

GO 

X 

8 

X 
-7 

X 

4— 

GO 

OS 

GO 
-7 

Water, 

P 

Si 

® 

^7 

§ 

if 

to 

— 

C/5 

Total 

excef 

P 

l-t 

CO 
OS 

-7 

4^ 

OS 
O 

OS 

if 
tb, 

CO 

i 

to 

CO 

Solids, 
Per  Cent. 

o 

^ 

cn 

rF" 

C/3 

i 

OS 

b 

X 

9£ 

CO 

0 

b 

Solids,  not 
Fat,  Pr.  Ct. 

n 

i 

o 

^ 

4^ 

Of 

O? 

to 

CO 

2 

-7 

CO 
05 

Fat, 
Per  Cent. 

.  —  _ 

z' 

Crq 

CO 

8 

0 

CO 
CS 

3 

2 

CO 

|CO 

Casein, 
Per  Cent. 

O 

rt> 

1 

Cf 

b 

1—  k 

b 

C7J 

<3l 

ss 

Milk  sugar, 
Per  Cent. 

n 

constit 

0 

| 

0 
-7 

i 

-7 

CO 

0 

0 
1-7 

Ash, 
PerCeiat. 

t/3 

a> 

C/5 

s, 

01 

0 

1 

0 

-7 

0 

0 
O( 

o 
o 

GO 

CO 

CT 

Nitrogen, 
Per  Cent. 

O 

; 

SO 

i 

os 

if 

OS 

i 

CO 

-7 

GO 

to 

Daily  milk 
yield,  Ibs. 

14(5 


A  Neiv  Dairy  Industry. 


S 

•4-3 

rt 

r^               S 

CO         ^*         C9         CO         O         C^ 

X 

j  > 

*«               U 

*^           JH 

Ci         CO         GO         Lt         rH         O 

CO 

VH 

<L> 

VH 

CJ 

^T      "S 

w 

»    • 

cd         3J 

r-i         GO         ^         t~         O         GO 

iO 

•  »—  « 

g 

a   o 

Cl         Q         CO         OS         JO         CC= 

j>: 

CO 

T3 

1        -^ 

K    1 

1 

3     V 

c"      c 

•^f         CO         "^         GO         i^         CO 

CO 

"rt 
O 

-4_-^ 

5/5                         ^ 

5    S 

"  *  ™  *  *'  ™ 

s 

<u 

4-> 

s  ^ 

•  T      <L> 

GO 

rH 
4-> 

^         (^ 

rt       0 

GO  "       £"*         CO         QO         1O         <O 

O 

^H 

^—  ^                ^"H 

tn         VH 

O~i         (^7         ?C         O7         CC         CO 

3      ^ 

«+H 

0            &     , 

•4—  > 

o 

o 

!U               ^ 

+2  -*J 

bjo 
cd 

J   >               ."^ 

rrt  &j    4) 

.     c-7       o       o       ci       a       t> 

O7 

-4_> 

"•4-*                   ^ 
°                 ^ 

1^ 

c/^  ^  ^ 

CO        i-H        CO        i-l        -rH         OS 

i-      J>       cc       i>      o       o 

8 

S 

y 

O           r^ 

^ 

O 

4J 

0 

*C/)              ^^ 

r^       -*-* 

a   & 

||o 

§      |      §   .  §      §      | 

§ 

^   c 

1    ^ 

1    i 

H^  ^ 

s 

s   p 

•r-(        ^_» 

§1 

N 

1 

C/3 

.2    & 

^ 

C/5 

£    o 

DjQ 

flj 

rt     u 

(-1 

rt 

OJ 

BRKEPS. 

C                                                       IH 

rt                             <u 
.§                             ^ 

£                   W 
•                     a      {^ 

C        ^                  cd        4j 

•r     .^             y      «       • 
|     1     g     S     |     I 

Average  ...... 

•g    n 

>  ^ 

*^_l 
<L>      O 

^   '$ 

rt 

IH 

a    <    ^,  <    o    o 

o 

«4H 

77ie  Normal  Dairy. 


147 


The  following  tables  give  the  results  of  investiga- 
tions by  the  New  York  Experiment  Station  for  the 
production  of  milk  only,  as  the  results  for  the  sepa- 
rate breeds  materially  differ  when  it  comes  to  the 
production  of  cream,  butter  and  cheese. 

Tabulated  Summary  Showing  Relative.  Results  of 
Comparison  for  Different  Breeds  of  Cattle  with 
Reference  to  Production  of  Milk.  Figures  based  on 
Lowest  results  as  100. 


American 
Holderness 

Ayrshire 

Devonshire  ' 

Guernsey 

Holstein 
Friesian 

>% 

<u 

C/3 

V_ 

cu 
1  —  1 

Shorthorn 

Relative  cost  of  food  eaten 
Relative  amount  of  milk 
produced 

114 

144 

131 

172 

100 

100 

123 

135 

135 
199 

121 

127 

123 
15^ 

Relative  cost  of  milk.  .  .  . 
Relative  amount  of  milk 
solids  produced         .    .  . 

117 
125 

114 
151 

145 
100 

232 

139 

100 
162 

139 
134 

120 
150 

Relation  of  per  cent,    of 

107 

108 

1°3 

1°6 

100 

130 

1^1 

Relative  cost  of  milk  sol- 
ids          

111 

100 

122 

107 

102 

110 

100 

Relative  value  of  milk  at 
1  °8  cents  per  Ib 

144 

171 

100 

135 

199 

127 

142 

Relative    value     of    milk 
based   on    solids  at  9!/3 
per  Ib         .        

125 

151 

100 

139 

162 

134 

150 

Relative    value    of    milk 
based    on    fat    at    26^ 
cents  per  Ib 

116 

134 

100 

156 

145 

154 

149 

Relative    apparent    profit 
from  milk 

151 

194 

100 

177 

004 

150 

9,11 

Relative      actual      profit 
from  milk          

163 

214 

100 

202 

255 

171 

245 

148 


A  New  Dairy  Industry. 


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JO  O5  T-I         O         00         £~         CO  TJ  —         77 


The  Normal  Dairy.  149 

When  we  turn  to  the  question  as  to  which  breed  of 
cows  will  be  the  most  economical  for  the  production 
of  the  normal  infants'  milk,  we  must  bear  in  mind 
that  the  constituants  of  the  milk  we  should  produce 
are  fixed  quantities,  and  that  no  considerations  of 
preference  for  any  particular  breed  should  interfere  in 
the  decision. 

Considerable  controversy  has  also  arisen  over  the 
physical  condition  of  the  cow,  in  respects  to  her 
ability  to  produce  a  pure  milk,  unimpaired  by  such 
changes  as  arise  from  the  collateral  functions  of  the 
generative  organs,  the  strictest  doctrinarians  advocat- 
ing the  exclusion  of  all  animals  in  a  state  of  preg- 
nancy, and  this  exaction  has  been  and  can  be  fulfilled 
by  dairy  farmers  situated  in  localities  where  cows 
may  be  advantageously  disposed  of  to  the  butcher 
after  finishing  their  period  of  lactation,  but  this  con- 
dition does,  more  generally,  not  prevail  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  those  populations  that  stand  in  the  most 
urgent  need  of  a  normal  dairy  establishment  and, 
where  the  exactment  of  such  a  stipulation  would 
mean  a  loss  of,  perhaps,  fifty  per  cent,  on  the  value  of 
the  cows  and,  correspondingly,  demand  the  reimburse- 
ment of  this  loss  by  an  advance  on  the  selling  price 
of  the  milk. 

As  to  feeding  the  cows,  it  should  be  made  the  rule 
to  feed  only  morning  and  evening  and  to  avoid  feed- 
ing dry  roughage  during  the  time  of  milking. 

Although  the  size  and  manner  of  construction  of 

the  stable,  or  barn,  in  which  the  cows  are  kept  is  not 

n 


150  A  New  Dairy  Industry. 

of  a  direct  influence  on  the  quality  of  the  milk  pro- 
duced as  long  as  it  is  well  arranged,  properly  lighted 
and  ventilated,  yet  there  are  some  reflections  of  im- 
portance which  should  be  considered  in  connection 
therewith.  In  the  columns  of  our  agricultural  and 
dairying  periodicals  we  frequently  come  across  the  dis- 
cription  of  so  called  "model  barns,"  the  model  part 
of  which  varies,  however,  as  to  the  point  of  view 
from  which  the  owner  has  started  in  erecting  it. 
Many  of  them  consult  only  their  own  advantage, 
others  try  to  make  their  cattle  comfortable,  some  try 
to  combine  the  interest  of  both  owner  and  cattle, 
very  few,  however,  pay  any  regard  to  the  interest  the 
consuming  public  may  have  in  the  construction  of 
the  barn.  A  barn  may  be  admirably  planned  for  eco- 
nomical management;  when  the  cattle,  are,  however, 
fastened  in  stanchions  on  cramped  platforms  their 
welfare  has  not  entered  on  the  "model"  arrangement, 
or  if  a  barn,  with  an  otherwise  faultless  arrangement, 
stores  the  manure  in  a  cellar  beneath  it,  then  the 
interest  of  the  public  has  not  been  taken  into  account 
in  laying  out  the  model  part  of  this  barn,  because  it 
makes  it  unfit  to  produce  pure  and  untainted  milk, 
such  as  we  should  insist  on  for  the  production  of 
normal  infants'  milk. 

When  a  farmer  or  dairyman  has  no  other  interests 
to  consult  but  his  own,  when  building  a  new  barn,  he 
is  free  to  indulge  in  any  eccentricities  that  may  be 
prompted  by  a  variety  of  motives,  some  based  on 
pra?tical  experience  and  economical  calculations, 


The  Normal  Dairy.  151 

others  again,  however,  on  motives  far  less  meriting 
of  imitation.  I  always  feel  a  genuine  pity  for  the 
possessor  of  a  very  large  barn,  a  few  of  which  I  have 
seen,  and  seen  photographs  and  descriptions  of  many 
more,  particularly  located  in  this  country  ;  they  are, 
in  most  cases,  very  creditable  testimonials  to  the  de- 
signing carpenter's  skill,  and  pretty  board  and  shingle 
monuments  to  the  owner's  length  of  purse,  but  as  for 
their  usefulness  and  merit  for  an  establishment  pro- 
ducing infants'  milk  after  the  methods  herein  de- 
scribed and  under  the  supervision  of  or  under  contract 
with  a  medical  board,  they  should  be  entirely  con- 
demned. The  normal  dairy  must  not  only  be  able  to 
supply  the  requisite  infants'  milk,  it  should  also  be 
regulated  in  a  manner  to  offer  the  greatest  possible 
security  for  maintaining  this  supply  continuously, 
because  a  sudden  falling  off  from  it  might  mean  in- 
terrupted development  and  serious  inconvenience  to 
many,  and,  perhaps,  death  to  some  infants.  This  se- 
curity is  not  found  in  the  large  barns  or  stables, 
where  a  disaster  may  sweep  off  the  entire  productive 
force  in  a  few  hours,  or  where  an  infectious  disease 
brought  in  by  one  animal  may — while  in  its  latent 
period  and,  therefore,  undetected — spread  and  infect 
every  animal  in  the  whole  herd.  Therefore,  when 
there  is  a  chance  to  do  so,  it  is  advisable  to  keep  the 
cows  in  separate  barns,  none  to  exceed  thirty  head. 
Newly  bought  animals,  if  not  coming  from  stables  in 
close  proximity  to  the  farm  and  from  herds  notori- 
ously free  from  all  disease,  should  be  kept  confined 


152  A  Neiv  Dairy  Industry. 

separately  for  a  term  of  ten  days.  Whoever  has  had 
a  chance  to  experience  the  trouble  which  epidemic 
abortion  gives,  its  pugnacity  and  infections  character, 
will  never  advocate  the  building  of  a  mammoth  barn. 
Besides  which,  the  limited  number  of  cows  mentioned 
above  is  just  the  number  to  be  well  cared  for  by  one 
man,  and  I  have  ever  found  that  attendants  will  work 
better  and  give  more  care  when  they  know  that  the 
responsibility  for  any  neglect  cannot  be  loaded  onto 
"  the  other  fellow."  A  good  man  will  be  proud  of 
the  good  looks  and  thrift  of  his  animals,  because  he 
knows  that  the  credit  for  it  is  earned  by  himself  alone. 
All  over  the  Old  Continent  the  Swiss  are  renowned  as 
being  the  best  milkers  and  attendants  on  cattle. 
From  my  own  experience,  and  from  the  testimony  of 
hundreds  that  employ  them,  it  is  a  well  merited  re- 
nown, so  much  so  that  in  several  countries  any  at- 
tendant on  milk  cows  is  termed  a  "  Swiss." 

Finally,  the  question  may  arise  how  is  the  dairy- 
man, who  intends  taking  in  hand  this  branch  of  busi- 
ness, to  insure  himself  and  his  undertaking  in  these 
times  of  hand  to  hand  fight  in  competition  against 
the  multitude  of  those  who,  though  too  indolent  or 
too  careful  to  risk  any  capital  in  a  new  and  untried 
industry  at  the  start,  yet  fall  upon  it  as  on  a  legiti- 
mate prey  as  soon  as  they  see  their  neighbor  making 
a  success  of  it.  Unrestrained  competition  will,  in  all 
instances,  tend  to  lower  the  standard  of  efficiency 
and  merit  in  any  product  of  general  consumption, 
the  quality  of  which  cannot  be  judged  by  the  outer 


Tlic  Normal  Dairy.  153 

appearance.  If  the  advantages  to  be  gained  by  an 
urban  population  from  the  establishment  of  a  normal 
dairy  are  not  recognized  as  meriting  protection  and 
support,  then  the  dairyman  is  located  near  the  wrong 
place.  Not  a  single  instance  has,  however,  come  to 
my  knowledge  of  this  ever  happening.  Quite  the 
contrary  ;  these  establishments  have,  particularly  in 
Germany,  multiplied  rapidly,  owing  to  the  hearty  and 
effective  support  received  at  the  hands  of  the  medical 
fraternitv. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

Conclusion, 

However  advantageous  and  promising  an  undertak- 
ing may  appear,  yet  exhaustive  investigation  and 
calculations  of  cost  of  production,  and  probable 
amount  of  sales,  should  form  a  principal  factor  in  the 
decision.  The  dairyman  intending  to  take  up  this 
industry,  should  first  of  all  find  put  if  the  physicians 
of  the  place  take  an  active  interest  in  the  matter. 
This  is  generally  the  case,  as  no  doctor  can  afford  to 
ignore  or  treat  the  subject  with  indifference;  moreover, 
infants  are,  in  most  cases,  the  most  ungrateful 
patients  they  have.  The  next  step  is  to  find  out  the 
number  of  residents  who  would,  in  all  probability,  be 
found  willing  to  pay  a  higher  price  for  a  health}'  in- 
fants' milk.  On  an  average  we  may  calculate  on 
forty  births  a  year  for  every  1,000  inhabitants.  We 
may  further  calculate  that  ten  of  these  new-born  in- 
fants will  be  nourished  with  normal  milk  for  the  en- 
tire first  year,  and  twenty  for  a  period  of  six  months 
only.  In  the  second  year  of  their  lives,  infants 
should  be  able  to  take  pure  cow's  milk,  this  should, 
however,  always  have  been  produced  under  observa- 
tion of  all  precautionary  measures  mentioned  hereto- 
fore, and  always  be  sterilized.  Let  us  calculate  that 
for  twenty  children,  in  their  second  year,  such'  steriJ- 


Conclusion.  155 

ized  cow's  milk  would  be  demanded,  we  would  then 
figure  on  a  total  daily  demand  per  thousand  inhabi- 
tants, as  follows  : 

10  Infants  in  their  1st  year,  at  0.75  qts.      7.5  qts. 
10       "        "       "      1st   '     u     "    1.00    "     10.0     u 
20Child'nu       "      2d        "      ';   1.00    "     20.0     u 


37. 5  qts. 

This  would  be  the  milk  necessary  for  infants  in 
their  first  and  second  years,  in  many  places,  however, 
the  consumption  of  normal  infants'  milk, and  sterilized 
cow's  milk,  has  risen  to  fifty  quarts  per  1,000  inhabi- 
tants daily,  owing  to  a  demand,  for  dyspeptics,  and 
older  children.  From  these  quantities  wre  may  judge 
that,  even  in  smaller  places,  the  establishment  of  the 
manufacture  of  normal  milk  may  be  remunerative, 
particularly  as  it  may  be  sent  to  adjoining  places 
without  spoiling.  Experience  has  shown  that  in  all 
cases  there  has  been  a  steady  increase  in  the  demand. 
To  encourage  the  introduction,  medical  men  must  be 
furnished  with  the  means  of  testing  the  normal  milk 
in  their  practice.  Printed  matter,  setting  forth  the 
merits  of  the  normal  milk,  should  be  mailed  to  all 
families  where  an  infant  has  been  born,  and  an  ar- 
rangement can  generally  be  made  to  receive  the  ad- 
dress of  such  families  from  the  office  of  registration. 

In  many  instances  the  furnishing  of  normal  milk 
to  poor  mothers,  is  a  favorite  way  of  bestowing 
charity,  and  checks  should  be  printed  for  the  receipt 
of  stated  quantities  of  milk,  to  facilitate  this,  and  to 


156  A  New  Dairy  Industry. 

avoid  the  giving  of  cash,  which  is  apt  to  be  preverted 
to  other  uses.  It  will  be  found  convenient  to  deliver 
the  bottles  in  light  wooden  boxes,  holding  from  fif- 
teen to  twenty-five  bottles  each,  the  number  varying 
with  the  size  of  the  bottles. 


Fig.  25-CLEANSING  BRUSH. 

Some  trouble  is  experienced  at  the  beginning  with 
the  returning  of  the  bottles  and  rubber  caps,  and 
some  strictness  is  required,  on  the  part  of  the  dairy- 
man, to  oblige  the  patrons  to  return  the  bottles  clean, 
or  what  this  may  mean  to  the  consumer.  We  know 
that  real  cleansing  means  the  application  of  steam, 
hot  water,  soda  and  the  brush.  This  is  a  point  of 
the  greatest  importance.  The  return  of  clean  bottles 
must  be  insisted  upon  at  all  hazards.  In  connection 
with  this,  and  to  illustrate  the  baneful  effects  of  un- 
restricted competition,  I  will  mention  my  experience 
when  walking  along  Fifth  avenue,  New  York  City, 


Conclusion. 


157 


in  May  of  this  year.  From  a  milk  wagon,  gorgeously 
appointed,  a  clean  man  was  distributing  dainty  glass 
jars  with  milk  to  the  basements  of  different  resi- 
dences ;  it  struck  me  as  a  model  arrangement,  until 
I  saw  the  man  return  with  a  load  of  empty  jars. 
They  had  not  been  cleaned  after  emptying  out  the 
milk,  and  were  in  a  state  of  disgusting  filth  and  sour- 
ness. I  imagine  that  if  this  milkman  would  object 
to  receiving  the  bottles  in  this  disgraceful  condition 
the  family  would  speedily  find  another  milkman, 
less  fanciful. 


Fig.  26-RINSING  VAT. 

As  for  the  premises  required  by  the  establishment, 
they  should  be  of  the  same  size  as  a  creamery  hand- 
ling the  same  quantity  of  milk.  There  should  cer- 
tainly be  four  separate  rooms,  the  first  for  the  receiv- 
ing vat,  cooler,  heater  and  separator ;  the  second  for 
the  mixing,  weighing  and  bottling  ;  the  third  for  the 
sterilizer  ;  the  fourth  for  the  cleansing  of  bottles  and 
utensils.  All  floors  should  be  cement  laid,  and  on 
the  same  level,  so  that  trucks  carrying  milk  or  bottles 


158  A  Mew  Dairy  Industry. 

may  be  wheeled  from  one  room  to  the  other  without 
obstruction.  Ice  house  and  storage  should  be  close 
by. 

The  cost  of  putting  up  and  fitting  an  establishment 
of  this  kind  can  hardly  be  closely  estimated  for  gen- 
eral direction,  as  they  will  change  for  every  locality  ; 
the  principal  items  of  expense  may,  however,  figure 
under  the  following : 

Steam  boiler $300  00 

Babcock  fat  tester 15  00 

Milk  heater 45  00 

Milk  cooler 45  00 

Cream  separator 2  2  5  00 

Two  bottle  cleaning  machines     .    .     ....  2<S  00 

Filling  apparatus .    .  40  00 

Sterilizer 

Bacteria  incubator 

Table  and  platform  scales 

Bottles  and  rubber  caps    .  • 250  00 

Thermometer  and  other  glass  instruments.    .  24  00 

Mixing  vats SO  00 

Smaller  utsenils 35  00 

Packing  cases,  labels,  printing,  advertising  .  100  00 

Steam  and  water  pipe  brass,  work 125  00 

There  is  no  absolute  necessity  for  a  steam  engine, 
because  the  cream  separator,  which  is  the  only  ma- 
chine used  requiring  power,  can  be  bought  with  steam 
turbine,  an  arrangement  which,  for  our  purposes, 
must  be  recommended. 

The  price  which  the  dairyman  is  to  receive  for  nor- 
mal milk  will  be  regulated,  in  some  degree,  by  the 


Conclusion. 


159 


price  which  common  good  cow's  milk  is  obtaining  at 
retail,  and  by  the  average  amount  of  prosperity  of  the 
place.  In  a  majority  of  cases  the  normal  milk  may 
be  manufactured  and  sold  at  an  advance  of  from  fifty 
to  seventy-five  per  cent,  on  the  retail  price  of  cow's 
milk,  although,  in  many  instances,  double  the  price 
of  ordinary  milk  is  obtained.  It  seems  needless  to 
dwell  on  the  necessity  of  a  liberal  supply  of  water  for 
the  uses  of  the  normal  dairy,  the  cleaning  of  the  bot- 
tles alone  requiring  a  considerable  quantity.  Where 
cool  spring  water  cannot  be  counted  upon  all  the 
year  round,  ice  must  be  brought  into  requisition. 
This  will  always  be  a  necessity  in  wanner  climates, 
and  it  is  just  in  these  that  the  amelioration  of  exist- 
ing conditions  for  the  production  of  a  healthy  infants" 
milk  is  the  most  urgent. 


Fig.  27-COMBINED  BRUSH  AND  RIN8ER. 

Short    courses  of  practical  instruction  will  be   or- 
ganized, as  purely  theoretical  instruction  has  proved 


160  A  New  Dairy  Industry. 

inadequate  to  impart  that  degree  of  security  which  is 
an  indispensible  condition  to  success  for  everyone 
contemplating  the  manufacture  of  normal  infants' 
milk. 

There  can  exist  but  little  doubt  that  the  near  future 
will  bring  into  greater  prominence  the  agitation  now 
so  ably  sustained  by  a  number  of  scientists,  who, 
working  on  this  field  of  investigation,  are  the  truest 
benefactors  to  infant  mankind. 

The  enactment  of  stricter  codes  for  milk  inspection, 
the  rigid  enforcement  of  those  already  existing,  the 
tuberculin  test  for  all  milk  cattle,  the  pasteurization 
or  sterilization  of  all  merchantable  milk,  and  the 
manufacture  of  artificial  mothers'  milk,  will  soon  be 
demands  in  universal  requisition  ;  it  will  be  for  the 
enterprising  and  intelligent  dairyman  to  watch  his 
chances,  to  keep  abreast  of  the  times  he  is  living  in, 
by  considering  whether  existing  circumstances  do  not 
warrant  his  embarking  in  this  manufacture.  Here  is 
the  chance,  so  seldom  offered  in  our  profession,  for 
a  man  to  lift  himself  above  the  great  horde  of  com- 
petitors, by  intelligence  and  progressive  energy  in  pro- 
ducing an  article,  the  success  of  which  will  depend  on 
the  theoretical  and  practical  training  of  his  mind  and 
business  capacity,  more  than  on  his  aptitude  to  hold 
a  plow,  handle  a  pitchfork,  or  follow  in  the  foot- 
prints of  his  forefathers. 


Conclusion.  161 

COMPARISON — WEIGHTS,    MEASURES    AND    THER- 
MOMETERS. 

One  American  gallon  is  equal  to  4  quarts  (cu.  2  pints. 
One  American  gallon  is  equal  to  8  pints  @  16  ounces. 
One   American   gallon    is  equal   to   ]  28   ounces   (cu.  8 
drachms. 

One  barrel  holds  31 1  gallons. 
One  hogshead  holds  63  gallons. 
One  tierce  holds  42  gallons. 
One  puncheon  holds  84  gallons. 
One  gallon  is  equal  to  1 ,453  liter. 
One  gallon  is  equal  to  3,785  cub.  centmeter. 
One  gallon  is  equal  to  10  pounds  of  water. 
One  Engl.  Imp.  gallon  contains  277  cub.  inches. 
One  ale  gallon  contains  282  cub.  inches. 
One  wine  gallon  contains  231  cub.  inches. 
One  dry  gallon  contains  268  8-10  cub.  inches. 
One  bushel  has  2,150  4-10  cub.  inches. 
One  quart  dry  measure  is  equal  to  2J  pounds  milk. 
One  quart  dry  measure  is  equal  to  1  1-7  quart  liquid 
measure. 

One  normal  quart  weighs  2.15  pounds. 
100  pounds  of  milk  is  equal  to  47  quarts. 
One    pound    Troy   is    equal    to    12    ounces,    each     8 
drachms,  each  3  scruples,  each  20  grains. 


102 


A  Neiv  Dairy  Industry. 


Fahrenheit. 

Reumur. 

Celsius. 

-f  257.0 

+  100.0 

+  125.0 

248.0 

96.0 

120.0 

230.0 

88.0 

110.0 

212.0 

'  80.0 

100.0 

194.0 

72.0 

90.0 

176.0 

64.0 

80.0 

158.0 

56.0 

70.0 

140.0 

48.0 

60.0 

122.0 

40.0 

50.0 

104.0 

32.0 

40.0 

86.0 

24.0 

30.0 

68.0 

16.0 

20.0 

50.0 

8.0 

10.0 

32.0 

0.0 

0.0 

+  14.0 

=   8.0 

-10.0 

4.0 

=  16.0 

=20.0 

-=22.0 

-24.0 

=30.0 

THE  DAIRYMEN'S  SUPPLY  Co, 

DAIRY  ENGINEERS 

..   AND   .. 

COMPLETE    OUTFITTERS 


MANUFACTURERS    AND 

FURNISHERS   OF 


apparatus  and  Supplies  for  Creamery  and  IDairy 

No.   1937  Market  Street 
PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 


Star  Milk  Cooler  Co. 

SUCCESSORS  TO 
EVAISIS    &     MEIUL-IISIGS 


MANUFACTURERS    OF 


THE  "STAR" 

MILK  AERATOR  AND  COOLER 

HADDONFIELD,  N.  J. 


dlPTf  A 


fl 

STTHE 


>T1EET 


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A     A 


ClEMiniElT 


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FEB  1  8  2004 


DD20   15M  4-02 


272136 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


